Explanation: Archaeological science is defined as the application of scientific techniques to the analysis of archaeological materials and sites, encompassing both practical methods and theoretical considerations.

Explanation: Martinón-Torres and Killick suggest that archaeological science contributes to the development of high-level theoretical frameworks within archaeology, rather than primarily to practical excavation techniques.

Explanation: Scholar Smith believes that both scientific archaeology and archaeological science inadequately incorporate the principles of falsification and the search for causality.

Explanation: The definition of archaeological science involves the application of scientific techniques to archaeological materials and sites.

Explanation: Martinón-Torres and Killick differentiate 'scientific archaeology' as an epistemology, or its philosophical approach to knowledge, from 'archaeological science,' which they describe as the practical application of specific scientific techniques to archaeological materials.

Explanation: Scholar Smith believes that neither scientific archaeology nor archaeological science sufficiently emphasizes the critical scientific principles of falsification or the active search for causality in research.

Explanation: Martinón-Torres and Killick assert that the field of 'archaeological science' has played a role in promoting the development of high-level theoretical frameworks within archaeology, suggesting it contributes to the discipline's conceptual depth.

Explanation: Archaeological science is defined as the application of scientific techniques to the analysis of archaeological materials and sites.

Explanation: The key areas of archaeological science mentioned include dating methods, artifact studies, environmental approaches, mathematical methods, remote-sensing/geophysical surveys, and conservation sciences. Architectural reconstruction is not explicitly listed as a primary area.

Explanation: Radiocarbon dating is most effective for dating organic materials like wood, bone, and textiles, not inorganic materials such as pottery shards.

Explanation: Dendrochronology is used for directly dating wooden artifacts and structures, as well as for calibrating radiocarbon dates, not solely for calibration.

Explanation: Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating measures photons discharged from quartz grains that have accumulated radiation dose, rather than measuring the decay rate of radioactive isotopes.

Explanation: Physical and chemical dating methods provide archaeologists with both absolute and relative chronologies essential for establishing timelines.

Explanation: The primary significance of dating techniques lies in their ability to provide absolute dates for strata and artifacts, establishing precise timelines for past human activities.

Explanation: Thermoluminescence dating is suitable for dating inorganic materials like pottery and heated stones, not organic materials such as bone and textiles.

Explanation: Radiocarbon dating is particularly effective for dating organic materials, such as wood, bone, and textiles, which contain carbon absorbed from the atmosphere during the organism's lifetime.

Explanation: Dendrochronology, the science of dating tree rings, is important for directly dating wooden artifacts and structures. It also serves a crucial function in calibrating radiocarbon dates, thereby enhancing their accuracy.

Explanation: Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating is used to absolutely date buried land-surfaces. It functions by measuring the photons discharged from grains of quartz within sedimentary bodies, which accumulate radiation dose over time from their surrounding environment.

Explanation: Electron spin resonance (ESR) is a technique used for dating materials such as teeth in archaeological contexts.

Explanation: Potassium-argon dating is employed for dating very old geological materials, such as volcanic sediments, which can be associated with fossilized hominid remains to indirectly establish their age.

Explanation: Thermoluminescence dating is applied to inorganic materials, most notably ceramics like pottery, as well as other materials that have been heated, such as flint or stone artifacts.

Explanation: The primary significance of dating techniques in archaeological research is their ability to provide absolute dates for archaeological strata and artifacts, thereby establishing precise timelines for past human activities and cultural developments.

Explanation: Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating is used to absolutely date buried land-surfaces by measuring the photons discharged from quartz grains that have accumulated radiation dose.

Explanation: Potassium-argon dating is employed for dating very old geological materials, such as volcanic sediments, which can be associated with fossilized hominid remains to indirectly establish their age.

Explanation: The primary goals of archaeometry in artifact analysis include determining material composition and ascertaining the provenance, or original source, of the materials used.

Explanation: Isotope analysis of human remains can provide information about both ancient diets and geographical birthplaces.

Explanation: Provenance analysis helps archaeologists understand the extent of an artifact's travel and provides evidence of ancient trade networks.

Explanation: Mathematical methods in archaeology are used for data treatment and analysis, not primarily for making excavations more efficient.

Explanation: Lithic analysis is a sub-discipline focused on the study of ancient stone tools, not metal objects.

Explanation: XRF and ICP-MS are techniques used for analyzing the composition of archaeological artifacts, not for dating them.

Explanation: When analyzing artifacts, archaeometrists aim to determine their material composition and to ascertain their provenance, which refers to the original source or location of the materials used.

Explanation: Isotope analysis, specifically of elements like lead, strontium, and oxygen, performed on human remains can help archaeologists estimate the diets of the individuals studied and infer their geographical birthplaces.

Explanation: Provenance analysis is significant because it identifies the original source of materials used in an artifact, revealing the extent of an artifact's travel and providing evidence for ancient trade and exchange systems.

Explanation: Archaeometallurgy is the sub-discipline of archaeological science dedicated to the study of ancient metals and their production.

Explanation: Techniques such as X-ray fluorescence (XRF) are employed to analyze the composition of archaeological artifacts.

Explanation: Provenance analysis is significant because it identifies the original source of materials used in an artifact. This information can reveal the extent of an artifact's travel and provide evidence for ancient trade and exchange systems.

Explanation: Remote-sensing techniques are primarily used before excavation to identify potential archaeological sites and features, not solely after excavation.

Explanation: Aerial photography, including satellite imagery and Lidar, is considered the most widespread remote-sensing technique for identifying archaeological sites.

Explanation: Ground-based geophysical surveys are primarily used to map archaeological features within already located sites, rather than discovering entirely new sites in unexplored regions.

Explanation: Aerial photography, which encompasses satellite imagery and Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging), is recognized as the most widespread remote-sensing technique used for identifying archaeological sites.

Explanation: Ground-based geophysical surveys are valuable for identifying and mapping archaeological features within sites that have already been located, providing a detailed subsurface view and aiding in site interpretation.

Explanation: Paleoethnobotany is a sub-discipline of archaeological science focused on the study of ancient plant remains.

Explanation: Environmental approaches in archaeology focus on reconstructing past climates, landscapes, flora, fauna, and aspects of ancient populations' diets and health, not exclusively on climate.

Explanation: Conservation sciences aim to understand decay processes and develop methods for preserving archaeological materials.

Explanation: Environmental approaches in archaeological science focus on reconstructing past climates, landscapes, flora, and fauna, as well as aspects of ancient populations' diets and health. Provenance analysis is typically related to artifact sourcing.

Explanation: Paleoethnobotany is the sub-discipline focused on the study of ancient plant remains, providing insights into past environments and human interactions with flora.

Explanation: Conservation sciences within archaeological science concentrate on understanding the processes that cause decay in archaeological materials and on developing new methods and materials for their effective preservation and conservation.

Explanation: Ben Marwick's research indicated that archaeologists' publication habits align more closely with those of social scientists, rather than hard sciences.

Explanation: In the United Kingdom, funding for archaeometry is managed by the Natural Environment Research Council and is administered separately from general archaeological funding.

Explanation: Archaeometry has had a significant impact on modern archaeology, providing substantial additional data and leading to revised understandings of past cultures.

Explanation: The 'first radiocarbon revolution' occurred in 1949, establishing the technique. The 'second radiocarbon revolution,' which significantly re-dated European prehistory, took place in the 1960s.

Explanation: The 'second radiocarbon revolution,' occurring in the 1960s, significantly altered the understanding of European prehistory's timeline.

Explanation: Ben Marwick's research demonstrated that archaeologists' publication habits tend to align more closely with those of social scientists, rather than with the typical practices observed in hard sciences.

Explanation: In the United Kingdom, the Natural Environment Research Council provides funding specifically for archaeometry, which is administered separately from the funding allocated for general archaeology.

Explanation: Archaeometry has significantly influenced modern archaeology by equipping archaeologists with substantial additional data and information through scientific techniques, thereby enabling revised understandings of past cultures and events.

Explanation: The 'second radiocarbon revolution,' which took place in the 1960s, had a profound impact on European prehistory by significantly re-dating its timeline, offering a revised chronology compared to the findings of the earlier 'first radiocarbon revolution' from 1949.