Explanation: The provided materials define authoritarianism as a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the reduction of civil liberties, and a diminished adherence to the rule of law.

Explanation: The absence of fixed terms or accountability to citizens' free choice, known as indefinite political tenure, is a defining characteristic of authoritarian regimes.

Explanation: Authoritarian systems often encourage political passivity and civic disengagement among the populace to maintain stability and prevent challenges to the regime.

Explanation: Authoritarianism involves a reduction in the rule of law, meaning laws are often applied arbitrarily, particularly to suppress opposition, which is fundamentally incompatible with the consistent and impartial application of law found in democratic systems.

Explanation: The provided materials define authoritarianism as a political system characterized by strong central power, the rejection of political plurality, and a reduction in civil liberties and the rule of law, often utilizing mass organizations for regime support.

Explanation: Authoritarianism is fundamentally characterized by the suppression of dissent, strong central power, and the rejection of political plurality, while extensive civil liberties are typically absent.

Explanation: The 'Porfiriato' in Mexican history refers to the extended period of authoritarian rule under Porfirio Díaz, characterized by centralized power and suppression of opposition.

Explanation: The 'New Order' in Indonesia, under President Suharto, represents a significant period of military dictatorship and authoritarian rule.

Explanation: The '6 January Dictatorship' in Yugoslavia refers to the period when King Alexander I suspended the constitution and assumed autocratic rule, centralizing power and suppressing political pluralism.

Explanation: Juan Linz's framework identifies limited political pluralism and minimal political mobilization as key characteristics of authoritarian regimes, not extensive levels of either.

Explanation: Limited political pluralism, a characteristic of authoritarianism, signifies constraints on political parties and interest groups, rather than allowing them to operate freely.

Explanation: Ill-defined executive powers in authoritarian regimes are typically vague and shifting, serving to expand executive authority rather than clearly delineate limits.

Explanation: Juan Linz identified 'limited political pluralism' as a key characteristic of authoritarian regimes, signifying constraints placed upon political institutions such as legislatures and parties.

Explanation: Juan Linz's framework for authoritarianism includes limited political pluralism, specific bases for legitimacy, and ill-defined executive powers, but explicitly excludes high levels of political mobilization and participation.

Explanation: In authoritarian contexts, 'limited political pluralism' refers to the imposition of constraints on political expression, the formation of parties, and the activities of interest groups, thereby restricting the scope of political competition.

Explanation: 'Ill-defined executive powers' in authoritarian regimes are typically vague and subject to change, enabling the executive branch to expand its authority and operate with less constraint.

Explanation: According to Juan Linz, political legitimacy in authoritarian regimes is frequently derived from appeals to emotion and the notion that the regime is a necessary response to societal problems, rather than from democratic consent.

Explanation: The distinction between totalitarianism and authoritarianism lies in their scope of control; totalitarian regimes aim for total societal domination, while authoritarian regimes permit some degree of private liberty as long as political power is not challenged.

Explanation: The primary distinction highlighted is that authoritarian regimes permit some private liberty by maintaining a separation between state and society, whereas totalitarian regimes seek comprehensive control over all societal and individual aspects.

Explanation: Totalitarian regimes actively employ mass mobilization to advance their ideological agendas, whereas authoritarian regimes generally seek to limit or suppress political mobilization to maintain stability and control.

Explanation: Elections in authoritarian regimes are typically subject to fraud and constraints on opposition, rather than being inclusive, competitive, and fair with genuine alternation of power.

Explanation: State control of media, electoral fraud, and other constraints are frequently employed in authoritarian systems to impede genuinely free and fair elections.

Explanation: While democratic constitutions aim to limit executive authority, authoritarian constitutions often function as 'window dressing' or 'operating manuals,' serving to legitimize or obscure reality rather than impose strict limits.

Explanation: Coup-proofing strategies are indeed measures employed by authoritarian regimes, such as establishing parallel security forces and overlapping agencies, to deter and prevent internal power seizures.

Explanation: Authoritarian regimes often utilize political parties to mobilize support for the regime and entrench its rule, rather than to foster genuine political competition or representation.

Explanation: The primary goal of political repression in authoritarian systems is to suppress dissent and opposition, thereby maintaining concentrated power and the political status quo.

Explanation: Authoritarian regimes invest in propaganda not to encourage debate, but rather to create an appearance of good performance, conceal repression, and maintain control.

Explanation: Authoritarian regimes employ social controls primarily to stifle or suppress independent civil society organizations, thereby maintaining regime control.

Explanation: Elections within authoritarian systems are typically characterized by fraud and significant limitations placed upon opposition participation, contrasting sharply with the inclusive and competitive nature of democratic elections.

Explanation: State control of the media and the occurrence of electoral fraud are identified as common hindrances that undermine the fairness and competitiveness of elections within authoritarian systems.

Explanation: Authoritarian regimes frequently employ constitutions as symbolic documents ('window dressing') or functional guides ('operating manuals') to legitimize their rule or mask the reality of their governance, rather than as strict constraints on power.

Explanation: Coup-proofing strategies are measures implemented by authoritarian regimes to prevent power seizures by small groups, often involving the creation of parallel security forces and overlapping agencies.

Explanation: Authoritarian regimes frequently utilize constitutions as symbolic instruments ('window dressing') or functional guides rather than as strict limitations on executive power, often to legitimize their rule.

Explanation: While coup-proofing strategies can reduce the likelihood of coup attempts, they may also lead to decreased military effectiveness and potentially limit the incumbent's ability to extract rents.

Explanation: A fundamental difference lies in their function: democratic constitutions are designed to impose strict limits on executive power, whereas authoritarian constitutions may serve other purposes, such as legitimization, without imposing such constraints.

Explanation: Political repression in authoritarian regimes serves the primary function of maintaining concentrated power by suppressing opposition and dissent, thereby preserving the existing political order.

Explanation: Competitive authoritarianism is defined by the presence of formal democratic institutions that are manipulated by incumbents who exploit state resources to gain an unfair advantage.

Explanation: Authoritarian socialism, or 'socialism from above,' is characterized by its rejection of political pluralism and freedom of assembly, distinguishing it from democratic socialist principles.

Explanation: The global trend from the mid-1970s to 2000 actually indicated a decline in the proportion of authoritarian states, marking a period of democratization, prior to a later 'democratic recession'.

Explanation: Since 2000, dictatorships are more frequently established through democratic backsliding, where elected leaders erode democratic institutions, rather than solely through traditional coups d'état.

Explanation: Hybrid regimes, or competitive authoritarian states, are characterized by a blurring of lines between democratic and authoritarian practices, not a clear separation.

Explanation: Democratic backsliding refers to the process where a country transitions from democracy towards a more authoritarian system, involving the erosion of democratic norms and institutions.

Explanation: Competitive authoritarianism describes regimes that possess formal democratic institutions but where incumbents exploit state resources to secure an advantage, thereby distorting the competitive process.

Explanation: Authoritarian socialism, or 'socialism from above,' supports socialist economic principles while fundamentally rejecting political pluralism, multi-party politics, and civil liberties.

Explanation: 'Democratic backsliding' describes the gradual erosion of democratic institutions and norms, leading to a decline in democratic quality or a transition towards authoritarian rule.

Explanation: Since 2005, a phenomenon known as the 'democratic recession' has been observed globally, characterized by a net decline in political rights and civil liberties in many countries.

Explanation: A key distinction is that authoritarian socialism rejects political pluralism, whereas democratic socialism upholds principles such as freedom of expression and multi-party elections.

Explanation: Contrary to this statement, a 2019 study by Guriev and Treisman indicates that authoritarian regimes have become less reliant on mass repression and violence, increasingly favoring information manipulation.

Explanation: Andrew J. Nathan identified norm-bound succession politics and meritocratic elite promotion as factors contributing to the resilience of Chinese Communist Party rule, not a lack thereof.

Explanation: Milan Svolik posits that violence is common in authoritarian systems precisely because of the absence of independent third parties, such as strong judicial bodies, to mediate disputes.

Explanation: Guriev and Treisman's research indicates that authoritarian regimes increasingly employ the manipulation of information and the imitation of democratic practices as control mechanisms, reducing their reliance on overt violence.

Explanation: Andrew J. Nathan identified norm-bound succession politics and meritocratic considerations in elite promotion as key factors contributing to the resilience of the Chinese Communist Party's authoritarian rule.

Explanation: Milan Svolik argues that violence is prevalent in authoritarian systems because there is an absence of independent third parties empowered to mediate disputes among various political actors.

Explanation: The 'dictator's dilemma' refers to the inherent challenge faced by authoritarian leaders in obtaining reliable information about the loyalty of their subordinates without inadvertently empowering potential rivals through the dissemination of such information.

Explanation: The term 'libertarian authoritarianism' is used to describe an ideology that opposes democracy and frames freedom in terms of promoting concepts such as white supremacy and male privilege.

Explanation: While economic development is often linked to democratization, scholars debate its role; some argue it increases the probability of democratization, while others contend it primarily stabilizes existing democracies rather than causing authoritarian states to democratize.

Explanation: Nationalism can be employed by both democratic and authoritarian regimes as a tool to foster unity and legitimize rule.

Explanation: The 'Arab Winter' refers to the period following the Arab Spring characterized by civil wars and the resurgence of authoritarianism in several countries, rather than successful, enduring democratization.

Explanation: The Beijing Consensus refers to the authoritarian governance model exemplified by China, which has been observed to influence global political trends as an alternative to liberal democracy.

Explanation: The 'Beijing Consensus' signifies an authoritarian model of governance, exemplified by China's development path, which has gained influence in global political discourse as an alternative to liberal democratic models.

Explanation: Nationalism is not exclusive to democratic regimes; authoritarian regimes can effectively utilize it as a strategy to foster national unity and legitimize their governance.

Explanation: The 'Arab Winter' denotes the period after the Arab Spring uprisings where several nations experienced civil conflict and a resurgence of authoritarian rule, rather than sustained democratization.

Explanation: Scholarly perspectives suggest that while economic development may enhance the stability of democracies, it does not automatically compel authoritarian states to transition towards democratic governance.