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*Brown v. Board of Education* completely overturned the Supreme Court's 1896 decision in *Plessy v. Ferguson*.
Answer: False
Explanation: *Brown v. Board of Education* partially overruled *Plessy v. Ferguson* by declaring 'separate but equal' unconstitutional in public education, but it did not completely overturn *Plessy* in all contexts.
The 'separate but equal' doctrine permitted racial segregation provided that facilities offered to each race were equivalent in quality.
Answer: True
Explanation: The 'separate but equal' doctrine, established by *Plessy v. Ferguson*, stipulated that racial segregation was permissible under the Constitution as long as the separate facilities for each race were deemed equal in quality.
Prior to the *Brown* decision, all U.S. states either mandated or forbade racial segregation in education, with no provisions for local discretion.
Answer: False
Explanation: Before the *Brown* decision, racial segregation in education varied, with 17 states requiring it and 16 states prohibiting it, implying that some states might have allowed local discretion or had no explicit laws.
The NAACP's legal strategy in the 1930s initially concentrated on challenging segregation within graduate school environments.
Answer: True
Explanation: The NAACP's early legal strategy, developed in the 1930s, specifically targeted segregation in graduate school settings to demonstrate the inherent inequality of 'separate but equal' in higher education.
*Sweatt v. Painter* and *McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents* were Supreme Court cases that reinforced the 'separate but equal' doctrine.
Answer: False
Explanation: On the contrary, *Sweatt v. Painter* and *McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents* were Supreme Court cases that began to undermine the 'separate but equal' doctrine by suggesting that racial segregation was inherently unequal in certain educational contexts, thereby laying groundwork for *Brown*.
The geopolitical context of the Cold War heightened U.S. officials' awareness that racial segregation detrimentally affected America's international standing.
Answer: True
Explanation: During the Cold War, U.S. officials recognized that racial segregation provided ammunition for Communist propaganda and undermined America's moral authority on the global stage, particularly in relations with newly independent non-white nations.
The intellectual underpinnings of *Plessy v. Ferguson* were partially linked to the scientific racism prevalent during that historical period.
Answer: True
Explanation: The 'separate but equal' doctrine upheld in *Plessy v. Ferguson* had intellectual roots partly in the scientific racism of the late 19th century, which posited inherent racial differences.
Which prior Supreme Court decision was partially superseded by *Brown v. Board of Education*?
Answer: Plessy v. Ferguson
Explanation: *Brown v. Board of Education* partially overruled *Plessy v. Ferguson* (1896), which had established the 'separate but equal' doctrine.
Under the 'separate but equal' doctrine, what criterion rendered racial segregation laws constitutionally permissible?
Answer: As long as the facilities provided for each race were equal in quality.
Explanation: The 'separate but equal' doctrine stipulated that racial segregation laws were constitutional as long as the facilities provided for each race were equal in quality.
Which two Supreme Court cases preceding *Brown v. Board of Education* indicated that racial segregation was intrinsically unequal in specific educational contexts?
Answer: Sweatt v. Painter and McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
Explanation: *Sweatt v. Painter* (1950) and *McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents* (1950) were key Supreme Court cases that began to erode the 'separate but equal' doctrine by highlighting the inherent inequalities of segregation in graduate and professional education.
What global geopolitical environment informed U.S. officials' understanding of the repercussions of racial segregation?
Answer: The Cold War and its impact on America's international image.
Explanation: The Cold War significantly influenced U.S. officials, as racial segregation at home provided propaganda material for the Soviet Union and undermined America's image as a champion of democracy and human rights abroad.
As articulated by Justice William O. Douglas, what constituted a potent determinant in America's diplomatic engagements with nations such as India?
Answer: Its attitude toward its colored minorities.
Explanation: Justice William O. Douglas observed that America's attitude toward its colored minorities was a powerful factor in its relations with countries like India, where he faced direct questions about racial discrimination.
In a 1954 address to the American Bar Association, what declaration did Chief Justice Earl Warren make concerning the American system?
Answer: That it was 'on trial both at home and abroad'.
Explanation: In a 1954 speech, Chief Justice Earl Warren declared that the American system was 'on trial both at home and abroad,' emphasizing the importance of upholding constitutional principles for national security and international standing.
The core ruling of *Brown v. Board of Education* declared that state laws establishing racial segregation in public schools were unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Answer: True
Explanation: The Supreme Court's unanimous decision in *Brown v. Board of Education* explicitly found that state-mandated racial segregation in public education violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, thereby rendering such laws unconstitutional.
The *Brown v. Board of Education* decision was rendered on April 17, 1954.
Answer: False
Explanation: The landmark decision in *Brown v. Board of Education* was issued on May 17, 1954, not April 17, 1954.
Oliver Brown was designated as the named plaintiff due to his prominence as a civil rights leader in Topeka, Kansas.
Answer: False
Explanation: Oliver Brown was named the lead plaintiff as a strategic decision by the NAACP, believing a male plaintiff would be better received by the Supreme Court, not primarily because he was a prominent civil rights leader.
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) served as legal counsel for the plaintiffs in the *Brown v. Board of Education* case before the Supreme Court.
Answer: False
Explanation: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), with Thurgood Marshall as chief counsel, represented the plaintiffs in the *Brown v. Board of Education* case, not the ACLU.
The U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas initially ruled in favor of the Browns, recognizing the inherent inequality of segregated schools.
Answer: False
Explanation: The U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas initially ruled against the Browns, upholding the 'separate but equal' doctrine, despite acknowledging that segregation had a detrimental effect on Black children.
Thirteen Topeka parents, representing 20 children, participated as plaintiffs in the class-action lawsuit initiated against the Board of Education.
Answer: True
Explanation: The *Brown v. Board of Education* lawsuit was a class-action case involving thirteen Topeka parents who represented twenty children challenging the segregated school system.
Linda Carol Brown was mandated to walk seven blocks to her bus stop to attend her segregated Black school.
Answer: False
Explanation: Linda Carol Brown was required to walk six blocks to her bus stop to be bused to her segregated Black school, which was 1 mile away, despite a white school being only seven blocks from her home.
Zelma Henderson was the final surviving plaintiff of the original *Brown v. Board of Education* case, her passing occurring in 2008.
Answer: True
Explanation: Zelma Henderson, the last surviving plaintiff of the original *Brown v. Board of Education* case, passed away on May 20, 2008, in Topeka at the age of 88.
The *Davis* case, originating from South Carolina, was the sole instance among the combined cases that commenced with a student protest.
Answer: False
Explanation: The *Davis* case, which originated from Virginia, not South Carolina, was indeed the only one of the five combined cases that began with a student protest, led by 16-year-old Barbara Rose Johns.
The *Gebhart* case was distinctive among the combined cases as a trial court initially determined discrimination to be unlawful.
Answer: True
Explanation: The *Gebhart* case, filed in Delaware, was unique among the combined cases because its trial court, a decision later affirmed by the Delaware Supreme Court, initially found that discrimination was unlawful.
The United Auto Workers (UAW) extended substantial financial assistance to the NAACP for its advocacy efforts before the Supreme Court.
Answer: True
Explanation: Under the leadership of Walter Reuther, the United Auto Workers (UAW) donated $75,000 to support the NAACP's legal efforts at the Supreme Court in the *Brown* case.
Thurgood Marshall, who presented arguments on behalf of the plaintiffs, subsequently attained the position of a U.S. Senator.
Answer: False
Explanation: Thurgood Marshall, the NAACP's chief counsel who argued the *Brown* case, was later appointed as an Associate Justice to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1967, not a U.S. Senator.
The Justice Department's *amicus curiae* brief in the *Brown* case predominantly addressed the economic ramifications of segregation.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Justice Department's *amicus curiae* brief in the *Brown* case notably emphasized foreign-policy considerations, arguing that school segregation damaged the United States' international image during the Cold War, rather than focusing primarily on economic impact.
The Supreme Court achieved a unanimous decision in *Brown v. Board of Education* during its initial deliberations in spring 1953.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Supreme Court was unable to reach a decision during its initial deliberations in spring 1953 and requested a rehearing. The unanimous decision was ultimately issued on May 17, 1954, after Chief Justice Earl Warren's appointment.
Chief Justice Earl Warren posited that the sole rationale for segregation rested upon a conviction in the inferiority of Black individuals.
Answer: True
Explanation: Chief Justice Earl Warren indeed argued to his fellow justices that the only conceivable justification for segregation was a belief in the inferiority of Black people, a position he used to build a unanimous opinion.
The Supreme Court's final vote in *Brown v. Board of Education* was 7-2 in favor of the plaintiffs.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Supreme Court's decision in *Brown v. Board of Education* was a unanimous 9-0 ruling in favor of the plaintiffs, not 7-2.
The Supreme Court unequivocally concluded that the Fourteenth Amendment was originally conceived to eradicate segregation in public education.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Supreme Court explicitly stated that it was unable to reach a definitive conclusion on whether the Fourteenth Amendment was originally intended to abolish segregation in public education, finding historical sources inconclusive.
The Court referenced psychological studies, notably Kenneth and Mamie Clark's doll experiments, to substantiate its findings regarding the deleterious effects of segregation.
Answer: True
Explanation: The Supreme Court indeed cited psychological studies, including the influential doll experiments conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark, to demonstrate the psychological harm inflicted upon Black children by segregated schooling.
According to the ruling in *Brown v. Board of Education*, which primary constitutional clause was violated by racial segregation in public schools?
Answer: The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
Explanation: The Supreme Court's decision in *Brown v. Board of Education* explicitly stated that state laws establishing racial segregation in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
On what specific date was the *Brown v. Board of Education* decision officially rendered?
Answer: May 17, 1954
Explanation: The landmark Supreme Court decision in *Brown v. Board of Education* was issued on May 17, 1954.
Who was the daughter of Oliver Brown, whose denied school enrollment precipitated the landmark lawsuit?
Answer: Linda Carol Brown
Explanation: Oliver Brown's daughter, Linda Carol Brown, was denied enrollment at a white school near her home, which became a central factor in the *Brown v. Board of Education* lawsuit.
Which organization provided legal representation for the plaintiffs in the *Brown v. Board of Education* case?
Answer: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
Explanation: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), led by Thurgood Marshall, represented the plaintiffs in *Brown v. Board of Education*.
What was the preliminary judgment issued by the U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas in the *Brown* case?
Answer: It ruled against the Browns, relying on the 'separate but equal' doctrine.
Explanation: The U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas initially ruled against the Browns, upholding the 'separate but equal' doctrine based on the precedent of *Plessy v. Ferguson*.
Notwithstanding its ruling against the plaintiffs, what particular determination did the District Court articulate concerning segregation in public education?
Answer: That segregation in public education had a detrimental effect on Black children.
Explanation: Despite ruling against the plaintiffs, the District Court found that segregation in public education had a detrimental effect on Black children, though it denied relief because the schools were deemed substantially equal in tangible aspects.
What was the total number of parents who participated as plaintiffs in the class-action lawsuit against the Topeka Board of Education?
Answer: Thirteen
Explanation: Thirteen Topeka parents, representing 20 children, were involved as plaintiffs in the class-action lawsuit against the Board of Education.
What rationale underpinned the selection of Oliver Brown as the lead plaintiff in the case?
Answer: It was a legal strategy, believing a man at the head of the roster would be better received by the Supreme Court.
Explanation: Oliver Brown was named the lead plaintiff as a strategic decision by the NAACP, believing that a man at the head of the roster would be better received by the U.S. Supreme Court justices.
Who held the distinction of being the final surviving plaintiff from the original *Brown v. Board of Education* case?
Answer: Zelma Henderson
Explanation: Zelma Henderson was the last surviving plaintiff of the original *Brown v. Board of Education* case, passing away in 2008.
Among the five cases consolidated under *Brown v. Board of Education*, which one originated from a student-led protest?
Answer: Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (Virginia)
Explanation: The *Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County* case, originating from Virginia, was the only one of the five combined cases that began with a student protest, led by Barbara Rose Johns.
In which of the consolidated cases did a trial court initially determine that discrimination was unlawful?
Answer: Gebhart v. Belton (Delaware)
Explanation: The *Gebhart v. Belton* case from Delaware was unique among the combined cases because a trial court initially found discrimination unlawful, a decision later affirmed by the Delaware Supreme Court.
What distinguished the Kansas case (*Brown v. Board of Education*) from the other consolidated cases concerning the quality of school facilities?
Answer: There was no contention of gross inferiority regarding the physical plant, curriculum, or staff of the segregated schools.
Explanation: The Kansas case was unique because, unlike some of the other cases, there was no contention of gross inferiority regarding the physical plant, curriculum, or staff of the segregated schools; the district court found substantial equality in these tangible factors.
What was the conclusive vote tally for the Supreme Court's judgment in *Brown v. Board of Education*?
Answer: 9-0
Explanation: The Supreme Court's decision in *Brown v. Board of Education* was a unanimous 9-0 ruling.
How did the Supreme Court rationalize its emphasis on the psychological ramifications of segregation in the *Brown* decision?
Answer: Because some school districts had improved their Black schools to 'equalize' them, preventing a finding of measurable inequalities.
Explanation: The Court focused on psychological effects because some school districts had improved Black schools to 'equalize' them, preventing a finding of measurable tangible inequalities, thus necessitating an examination of the 'separate but equal' principle itself.
What was the Supreme Court's definitive pronouncement concerning the constitutionality of 'separate but equal' in the realm of public education?
Answer: It had no place because separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.
Explanation: The Supreme Court ultimately held that in public education, the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place because separate educational facilities are inherently unequal, thereby violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Which psychological research was referenced by the Court to bolster its determination regarding the detrimental effects of segregation?
Answer: Studies by Kenneth and Mamie Clark on doll preferences.
Explanation: The Court cited psychological studies, most notably the doll experiments conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark, which demonstrated the negative psychological impact of segregation on Black children.
Which NAACP leaders played a role in enlisting plaintiffs for the Topeka case?
Answer: McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, and Lucinda Todd
Explanation: NAACP leaders McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, and Lucinda Todd were instrumental in recruiting plaintiffs for the Topeka case, which became *Brown v. Board of Education*.
Describe Linda Carol Brown's circumstances concerning her daily school commute.
Answer: She was bused to a segregated Black school 1 mile away, despite a white school being seven blocks from her house.
Explanation: Linda Carol Brown was required to walk six blocks to a bus stop to be transported 1 mile to her segregated Black school, despite a white school being only seven blocks from her home.
The majority of white individuals in the Southern United States responded to the *Brown* decision with immediate acceptance and cooperation.
Answer: False
Explanation: In the Southern United States, the *Brown* decision was met with widespread 'noisy and stubborn' decrial and resistance, particularly in the Deep South, rather than immediate acceptance.
The 'Massive Resistance' movement represented a strategy for the rapid integration of Southern schools.
Answer: False
Explanation: The 'Massive Resistance' movement, organized by Virginia Senator Harry F. Byrd, was explicitly designed to frustrate and delay attempts to desegregate school systems in the South, often through extreme measures like closing public schools.
Subsequent to the *Brown* decision, numerous African-American educators in the South were elevated to leadership roles within integrated schools.
Answer: False
Explanation: For decades after the *Brown* decision, many African-American teachers, principals, and other school staff in the South were, in fact, fired or laid off as integrated school systems were established under white leadership.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower addressed the Little Rock crisis by deploying the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne Division.
Answer: True
Explanation: In response to Governor Orval Faubus's resistance to desegregation in Little Rock, President Dwight D. Eisenhower federalized the Arkansas National Guard and deployed the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne Division to ensure the safe entry of the Little Rock Nine.
Prince Edward County, Virginia, ceased operation of its public schools for a period of five years to circumvent desegregation.
Answer: True
Explanation: Prince Edward County, Virginia, indeed closed its public schools for five years (1959-1964) as an extreme measure to avoid complying with desegregation orders, leaving Black students without public education.
In *Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County*, the Supreme Court affirmed the 'all deliberate speed' directive.
Answer: False
Explanation: In *Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County*, the Supreme Court explicitly overturned the 'all deliberate speed' directive from *Brown II*, stating that 'the time for mere 'deliberate speed' has run out' and mandated the reopening of public schools.
Topeka elementary schools achieved full integration into neighborhood attendance centers by January 1956.
Answer: True
Explanation: The Topeka Board of Education began desegregation in August 1953, and all Topeka elementary schools were indeed fully integrated into neighborhood attendance centers by January 1956.
The *Brown II* decision in 1955 mandated the immediate desegregation of all public schools across the nation.
Answer: False
Explanation: The *Brown II* decision in 1955 did not order immediate desegregation but rather delegated the task to district courts, instructing them to proceed 'with all deliberate speed,' a directive that allowed for significant delays.
The 'all deliberate speed' directive emanating from *Brown II* garnered extensive criticism for enabling Southern states to postpone integration.
Answer: True
Explanation: The 'all deliberate speed' directive from *Brown II* was indeed widely criticized for its ambiguity, which many Southern states exploited to resist, delay, and avoid meaningful integration for years.
What was the objective of the 'Massive Resistance' movement, orchestrated by Virginia Senator Harry F. Byrd?
Answer: Frustrate attempts to desegregate school systems in the South.
Explanation: The 'Massive Resistance' movement, led by Virginia Senator Harry F. Byrd, was a concerted effort to obstruct and delay the desegregation of school systems throughout the South.
In 1957, how did Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus impede desegregation efforts in Little Rock?
Answer: By calling out the Arkansas Army National Guard to block Black students from entering Little Rock Central High School.
Explanation: In September 1957, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus resisted desegregation by deploying the Arkansas Army National Guard to prevent the entry of nine Black students into Little Rock Central High School.
Subsequent to the *Brown II* decision, what drastic action did Prince Edward County, Virginia, undertake to circumvent desegregation?
Answer: It stopped appropriating money for its public schools, forcing them to close for five years.
Explanation: To avoid desegregation after *Brown II*, Prince Edward County, Virginia, ceased appropriating money for its public schools, forcing them to close for five years (1959-1964).
In *Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County*, what pronouncement did the Supreme Court issue concerning the 'all deliberate speed' directive?
Answer: It overturned the directive, stating 'the time for mere 'deliberate speed' has run out'.
Explanation: In *Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County*, the Supreme Court overturned the 'all deliberate speed' directive, declaring that 'the time for mere 'deliberate speed' has run out' and mandated immediate action.
By what date were all Topeka elementary schools completely integrated into neighborhood attendance centers?
Answer: January 1956
Explanation: All Topeka elementary schools were fully integrated into neighborhood attendance centers by January 1956, following the Topeka Board of Education's decision to end segregation.
What was the stated objective of the *Brown II* decision, promulgated in 1955?
Answer: To address the implementation of desegregation, ordering it to occur 'with all deliberate speed'.
Explanation: The *Brown II* decision, issued in 1955, was intended to address the practical implementation of desegregation, instructing district courts to oversee the process 'with all deliberate speed'.
What circumstances prompted the reopening of the *Brown* case in 1978, subsequently referred to as *Brown III*?
Answer: Concerns that Topeka Public Schools' 'open enrollment' policy was leading to re-segregation.
Explanation: The *Brown* case was reopened in 1978, becoming *Brown III*, due to concerns that Topeka Public Schools' 'open enrollment' policy was leading to and would perpetuate re-segregation.
In *Dayton Board of Education v. Brinkman* (1977), what principle did the Supreme Court articulate concerning the scope of federal court authority in school desegregation?
Answer: Federal court power is limited and can only be exercised based on a constitutional violation, with the remedy's scope determined by that violation.
Explanation: In *Dayton Board of Education v. Brinkman* (1977), the Supreme Court clarified that the equitable power of federal courts in school desegregation is limited, exercisable only based on a constitutional violation, with the remedy's scope determined by that violation.
According to plaintiff Zelma Henderson, what characterized the general ambiance during the desegregation process in Topeka's schools?
Answer: It was peaceful, with no demonstrations or tumult.
Explanation: Plaintiff Zelma Henderson recalled that desegregation in Topeka's schools was peaceful, without demonstrations or tumult, and that the integration of teachers and principals followed relatively quickly.
The *Brown v. Board of Education* decision constituted a minor setback for the civil rights movement.
Answer: False
Explanation: The *Brown v. Board of Education* decision was, in fact, a monumental victory for the civil rights movement, providing a crucial legal foundation for challenging discriminatory laws and advancing racial integration.
William Rehnquist, in his capacity as a law clerk, initially contended that *Plessy v. Ferguson* was erroneous and warranted overturning.
Answer: False
Explanation: As a law clerk in 1952, William Rehnquist wrote a memo arguing that *Plessy v. Ferguson* was correct and should be reaffirmed, though he later distanced himself from these views during his confirmation hearings.
Legal academics such as Learned Hand and Herbert Wechsler lauded Chief Justice Warren's rationale in *Brown* as an exemplary instance of judicial restraint.
Answer: False
Explanation: Legal academics like Learned Hand and Herbert Wechsler, on the contrary, criticized Chief Justice Warren's reasoning in *Brown*, with Hand suggesting the Court had 'assumed the role of a third legislative chamber' and Wechsler questioning its justification based on neutral principles.
Justice Clarence Thomas asserted that the injury identified in *Brown I* was exclusively linked to *de jure* segregation, rather than *de facto* segregation.
Answer: True
Explanation: In *Missouri v. Jenkins* (1995), Justice Clarence Thomas indeed argued that the harm identified in *Brown I* was solely tied to *de jure* (by law) segregation, not *de facto* (by fact or custom) segregation, and that psychological injury was irrelevant.
What constituted a significant consequence of the *Brown v. Board of Education* decision for the Civil Rights Movement?
Answer: It served as a model for future impact litigation cases challenging discriminatory laws.
Explanation: The *Brown v. Board of Education* decision was a pivotal victory for the civil rights movement, establishing a legal precedent for challenging discriminatory laws and serving as a catalyst for further desegregation efforts.
What function did 'hereditarianism' serve in the adverse reaction to the *Brown* decision?
Answer: It suggested that traits like intelligence are primarily determined by heredity and can differ between races, fueling attacks on the decision.
Explanation: Ideas of 'hereditarianism,' suggesting that traits like intelligence are primarily determined by heredity and can differ between races, played a significant role in fueling the backlash and attacks against the *Brown* decision.
What was William Rehnquist's initial position on *Plessy v. Ferguson* during his tenure as a law clerk in 1952?
Answer: He wrote a memo arguing that Plessy v. Ferguson was correct and should be reaffirmed.
Explanation: As a law clerk in 1952, William Rehnquist authored a memo arguing that *Plessy v. Ferguson* was correct and should be reaffirmed, though he later clarified that this represented his justice's views, not necessarily his own.
Upon what premise did Robert Bork base his endorsement of the *Brown* decision?
Answer: The belief that by 1954, segregation rarely produced equality and physical facilities for Black students were inferior.
Explanation: Robert Bork endorsed the *Brown* decision by arguing that by 1954, it was evident that segregation rarely produced equality, and the physical facilities for Black students were often inferior, thus necessitating the prohibition of state-imposed segregation to achieve equality before the law.