Enter a player name to begin or load your saved progress.
The centum-satem classification of Indo-European languages is fundamentally based on the divergent evolution of their dorsal consonants.
Answer: True
Explanation: The primary criterion for the centum-satem classification lies in the distinct historical developments of the dorsal consonant series inherited from Proto-Indo-European (PIE).
The term "centum" derives from the Latin word for "hundred," which exhibits a characteristic initial velar sound.
Answer: True
Explanation: The classification is named after the Latin word "centum" (pronounced with an initial /k/ sound), representing the centum branch's treatment of PIE palatovelars. The term "satem" originates from Avestan "satəm".
The centum-satem distinction is clearly observed in the reflexes of the PIE word for "hundred."
Answer: True
Explanation: The divergence in the pronunciation of the word for "hundred" (Latin 'centum' vs. Avestan 'satəm') is the primary etymological basis for the centum-satem classification.
What is the primary basis for classifying Indo-European languages as "centum" or "satem"?
Answer: The evolution of their dorsal consonants.
Explanation: The classification hinges on the divergent historical pathways of the PIE dorsal consonant series, specifically the palatovelars and labiovelars.
The terms "centum" and "satem" are derived from the words for "hundred" in which languages, respectively?
Answer: Latin and Avestan
Explanation: The classification is named after the Latin word 'centum' and the Avestan word 'satəm', both meaning 'hundred', reflecting the distinct reflexes of the PIE word for this number.
The "Indo-European vocabulary" is relevant to the centum-satem split because:
Answer: The distinction is observed in the reflexes of many reconstructed vocabulary items.
Explanation: The systematic differences in the reflexes of PIE roots across centum and satem languages provide crucial evidence for understanding the historical divergence and the nature of the split.
The PIE word for "hundred" (*démtom) is reconstructed with a dorsal consonant that developed differently in centum and satem languages. This consonant is traditionally identified as:
Answer: A palatovelar (*kʲ)
Explanation: The PIE palatovelar *kʲ is the dorsal consonant whose divergent reflexes in centum and satem languages form the basis of the classification, as seen in the word for "hundred."
The "uvular theory" proposes that PIE plain velars were pronounced farther back in the vocal tract, potentially as uvular consonants.
Answer: True
Explanation: This theory suggests a reinterpretation of PIE dorsal phonemes, positing that the sounds traditionally labeled as "plain velars" might have been uvular, and the "palatovelars" were the actual plain velars.
The two-series hypothesis for PIE dorsal consonants proposes the existence of plain velars, palatovelars, and labiovelars.
Answer: False
Explanation: The two-series hypothesis posits that PIE possessed only two dorsal consonant series, typically a simple velar and a labiovelar, challenging the traditional three-series reconstruction.
Arguments for the two-series hypothesis include the statistical rarity of traditional "plain velars" and their complementary distribution with "palatovelars."
Answer: True
Explanation: Proponents of the two-series hypothesis cite factors such as the perceived statistical improbability of the traditional three series and observed complementary distribution patterns as evidence for their model.
The traditional three-series hypothesis for PIE dorsal consonants is supported by the comparative method requiring only two series for reconstruction.
Answer: False
Explanation: The comparative method, when reconstructing PIE dorsal consonants, often necessitates the postulation of three distinct series (plain velars, palatovelars, and labiovelars) to account for the observed reflexes in daughter languages.
The "boukólos rule" is proposed to explain the reduction of PIE labiovelars when they occur next to a *u or *w sound.
Answer: True
Explanation: This rule addresses the phonetic environment influencing PIE labiovelars, suggesting a reduction or change when adjacent to rounded vowels or semivowels.
The glottalic theory suggests that some PIE dorsal consonants might have been glottalized.
Answer: True
Explanation: This theory offers an alternative framework for understanding PIE phonology, proposing glottalized consonants as a potential component of the dorsal series.
Which hypothesis suggests that PIE originally had only two dorsal consonant series, a simple velar and a labiovelar?
Answer: The two-series hypothesis
Explanation: This hypothesis posits that the traditional three series of PIE dorsal consonants (plain velar, palatovelar, labiovelar) should be reduced to two, typically a simple velar and a labiovelar.
In the context of PIE phonology, the "uvular theory" proposes that:
Answer: PIE plain velars were pronounced further back, possibly as uvulars.
Explanation: This theory suggests that the sounds traditionally identified as PIE plain velars might have been uvulars, thereby reinterpreting the nature of the dorsal consonant system.
The "boukólos rule" in PIE phonology is proposed to explain the reduction of:
Answer: Labiovelars next to *u or *w sounds.
Explanation: This rule addresses the phonetic environment of PIE labiovelars, suggesting they might have undergone reduction when adjacent to *u or *w.
Which of the following is a characteristic of the "two-series hypothesis" for PIE dorsal consonants?
Answer: It suggests PIE had only two dorsal series, typically a simple velar and a labiovelar.
Explanation: This hypothesis proposes a simplification of the PIE dorsal consonant inventory, reducing the traditionally accepted three series to two.
The "glottalic theory" is an alternative interpretation of PIE phonology that suggests:
Answer: PIE dorsal consonants might have been glottalized.
Explanation: This theory proposes that some PIE dorsal consonants possessed glottalized articulation, offering a different perspective on the PIE phonemic inventory.
Hellenic, Celtic, Italic, and Germanic languages are generally classified as centum languages due to their characteristic treatment of PIE dorsal consonants.
Answer: True
Explanation: These western Indo-European branches exhibit centumisation, meaning their reflexes of PIE palatovelars typically merged with plain velars, distinguishing them from satem languages.
Centumisation is the process where PIE palatovelars developed into sibilants or affricates.
Answer: False
Explanation: Centumisation is defined by the merger of PIE palatovelars with plain velars. The development of palatovelars into sibilants or affricates is characteristic of satemisation.
Tocharian languages are classified as centum languages, reflecting the merger of PIE palatovelars with plain velars, although they also present unique phonological characteristics.
Answer: True
Explanation: Tocharian is generally classified as a centum language due to its treatment of PIE palatovelars. However, its complete merger of all three PIE dorsal series into a single phoneme complicates straightforward classification.
In Latin, the PIE word for "hundred" (*démtom) typically shows a reflex of the PIE palatovelar that merged with the plain velar, resulting in a /k/ sound.
Answer: True
Explanation: The Latin word "centum" demonstrates the centum development, where the PIE palatovelar in the word for "hundred" yielded a /k/ sound, aligning with the merger of palatovelars and plain velars.
In Germanic languages, PIE palatovelars (*kʲ) often developed into an /h/ sound, a development consistent with centumisation.
Answer: True
Explanation: The development of PIE palatovelars into /h/ in Germanic languages, as exemplified by the word for "hundred," is considered a centum reflex, often explained through Grimm's Law or related sound changes.
Satemisation is the process where PIE palatovelars typically merged with plain velars.
Answer: False
Explanation: Satemisation involves the development of PIE palatovelars into sibilants or affricates. The merger of palatovelars with plain velars is the defining characteristic of centumisation.
In Celtic languages, the PIE palatovelar *kʲ generally developed into a /k/ sound, which in P-Celtic languages subsequently evolved into /p/.
Answer: True
Explanation: The PIE palatovelar *kʲ yielded a /k/ in Proto-Celtic, which then underwent further change to /p/ in the P-Celtic branch, such as in Welsh 'cant' (hundred).
In Latin, the PIE labiovelar *kʷ typically developed into the /kw/ sound.
Answer: True
Explanation: The PIE labiovelar *kʷ is reflected as /kw/ in Latin, for instance, in the word 'quis' (who), demonstrating a characteristic centum development.
In Germanic languages, PIE labiovelars like *kʷ generally developed into a /hw/ sound.
Answer: True
Explanation: The PIE labiovelar *kʷ is typically represented by /hw/ in Germanic languages, as seen in the cognate for "hundred."
In P-Celtic languages, the PIE labiovelar *kʷ generally developed into a /p/ sound.
Answer: True
Explanation: This is a characteristic development within the P-Celtic branch, where PIE labiovelars often yielded /p/.
According to traditional reconstruction, which series of PIE dorsal consonants merged with plain velars (*k, *g, *gʰ) in centum languages?
Answer: Palatovelars (*kʲ, *gʲ, *gʲʰ)
Explanation: Centumisation is defined by the merger of the PIE palatovelar series with the plain velars, resulting in a single series of velar consonants in these positions.
Which of the following is NOT typically classified as a centum language branch?
Answer: Indo-Iranian
Explanation: Indo-Iranian languages, such as Sanskrit and Persian, are primary examples of satem languages, characterized by the assibilation of PIE palatovelars.
Which statement accurately describes the Tocharian language's position in the centum-satem model?
Answer: It is a centum language that merged all three dorsal series into one phoneme.
Explanation: Tocharian exhibits centum characteristics by merging PIE palatovelars with plain velars. However, it uniquely merged all three PIE dorsal series (*k, *kʲ, *kʷ) into a single phoneme, *k.
How does the Latin word "centum" exemplify the characteristic of centum languages?
Answer: It shows the centum development of PIE palatovelars into a /k/ sound.
Explanation: The Latin 'centum' demonstrates centumisation, where the PIE palatovelar in the word for 'hundred' yielded a /k/ sound, reflecting its merger with the plain velar series.
According to the source, what is the outcome of PIE *kʷ in Germanic languages?
Answer: hw
Explanation: In Germanic languages, the PIE labiovelar *kʷ typically developed into the /hw/ sound.
What is the outcome of the PIE labiovelar *kʷ in Italic languages like Latin?
Answer: kw
Explanation: In Italic languages, the PIE labiovelar *kʷ typically developed into the /kw/ sound, as exemplified by Latin 'quis' (who).
The centum-satem classification is based on the development of dorsal consonants, specifically how the PIE palatovelars (*kʲ, *gʲ, *gʲʰ) evolved. In centum languages, these typically:
Answer: Merged with the plain velars (*k, *g, *gʰ).
Explanation: Centumisation is defined by the merger of PIE palatovelars with the plain velar series, resulting in a single set of velar sounds in these positions.
Which of the following is NOT a typically cited centum language branch?
Answer: Balto-Slavic
Explanation: Balto-Slavic languages are predominantly classified as satem languages, exhibiting the characteristic assibilation of PIE palatovelars.
The source mentions that in Germanic languages, PIE palatovelar *kʲ often developed into an /h/ sound. This is an example of:
Answer: Centumisation.
Explanation: The development of PIE palatovelars into /h/ in Germanic languages is considered a centum reflex, consistent with the broader pattern of centumisation.
Which PIE dorsal consonant is noted to have developed into /hw/ in Germanic languages?
Answer: *kʷ
Explanation: The PIE labiovelar *kʷ is typically reflected as /hw/ in Germanic languages.
In satem languages, PIE palatovelars (*kʲ, *gʲ, *gʲʰ) typically underwent assibilation, developing into sibilants or affricates, rather than merging with the plain velars.
Answer: True
Explanation: Satemisation is characterized by the development of PIE palatovelars into sibilant or affricate sounds, a process distinct from their merger with plain velars observed in centum languages.
Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic are major branches generally considered "satem" languages due to their characteristic treatment of PIE dorsal consonants.
Answer: True
Explanation: These eastern Indo-European branches exhibit satemisation, where PIE palatovelars typically developed into sibilants or affricates, distinguishing them from centum languages.
The Sanskrit word "śatam" reflects the satem development of the PIE word for "hundred," showing a sibilant reflex for the original palatovelar.
Answer: True
Explanation: Sanskrit "śatam" exemplifies satemisation, where the PIE palatovelar in the word for "hundred" evolved into the sibilant /ś/, a hallmark of the satem branches.
"Incomplete satemisation" refers to instances where remnants of labial elements from PIE labiovelars are found in Balto-Slavic languages, or where certain environments show different reflexes.
Answer: True
Explanation: This term describes situations where the satem changes are not fully consistent, potentially preserving traces of labial elements from PIE labiovelars or showing variations based on phonetic context.
The Armenian word for "hundred" reflects the centum development of the PIE palatovelar.
Answer: False
Explanation: Armenian exhibits satem-like features, with the PIE palatovelar in the word for "hundred" typically developing into a sibilant (/s/), not a centum reflex.
In Lithuanian, the PIE palatovelar *kʲ typically developed into a /š/ sound.
Answer: True
Explanation: Lithuanian, a Baltic language, shows the satem development of PIE palatovelars into /š/, as evidenced by the word for "hundred" (šimtas).
In Slavic languages, PIE palatovelars (*kʲ) generally developed into plain velar sounds.
Answer: False
Explanation: Slavic languages typically exhibit satemisation, where PIE palatovelars developed into sibilants or affricates, not plain velars.
In Sanskrit, the PIE labiovelar *kʷ typically developed into a sibilant sound like /ś/.
Answer: False
Explanation: In Sanskrit, the PIE palatovelar *kʲ developed into /ś/, while the PIE labiovelar *kʷ typically yielded a /k/ sound.
The "ruki sound law" describes the change of *s to *š after *i, *u, *r, and *k.
Answer: True
Explanation: This sound law is considered a shared innovation among satem languages, indicating contact and common development pathways.
In Slavic languages, PIE labiovelars (*gʷ) typically developed into sounds similar to /g/.
Answer: False
Explanation: Slavic languages generally show satem reflexes for PIE labiovelars, often resulting in palatalized sounds like /gʲ/ or /j/, rather than simple /g/.
Assibilation is a sound change where a consonant becomes a velar sound.
Answer: False
Explanation: Assibilation is the process by which a consonant transforms into a sibilant (e.g., /s/, /z/) or an affricate (e.g., /ts/, /tʃ/). It is a key feature of satemisation.
What is the primary outcome of PIE *kʲ in Sanskrit?
Answer: ś
Explanation: In Sanskrit, the PIE palatovelar *kʲ typically developed into the sibilant /ś/, a characteristic satem reflex.
What linguistic process defines "satemisation" in Indo-European languages?
Answer: The development of palatovelars into sibilants or affricates.
Explanation: Satemisation is the characteristic change where PIE palatovelars evolved into sibilant or affricate consonants, a key feature distinguishing satem languages.
The "ruki sound law" is cited as evidence for contact among which group of languages?
Answer: Satem languages
Explanation: The "ruki sound law" and early palatalization of velars are considered shared innovations that suggest contact and common development among satem languages.
How did the PIE palatovelar *kʲ typically develop in Baltic languages like Lithuanian?
Answer: It developed into a sibilant sound like /š/.
Explanation: Lithuanian, a Baltic language, shows the satem development of PIE palatovelar *kʲ into the sibilant /š/, as seen in the word for "hundred."
Which of the following is an example of a satem language reflecting the PIE word for "hundred"?
Answer: Sanskrit 'śatam'
Explanation: Sanskrit 'śatam' exemplifies the satem reflex, where the PIE palatovelar in the word for "hundred" became a sibilant /ś/.
Which of the following is a shared innovation cited as evidence for contact among satem languages?
Answer: The 'ruki sound law' and early palatalization of velars.
Explanation: These specific sound changes are considered shared innovations that point to linguistic contact and common development within the satem group.
What does the term "assibilation" mean in the context of linguistic sound changes?
Answer: The change of a consonant into a sibilant or affricate.
Explanation: Assibilation is a key process in satemisation, where consonants, particularly palatovelars, transform into sibilants or affricates.
Which PIE dorsal consonant series is noted to have developed into /s/ or /š/ sounds in satem languages like Armenian and Baltic languages?
Answer: Palatovelars (*kʲ, *gʲ, *gʲʰ)
Explanation: The satemisation process specifically affects the PIE palatovelars, transforming them into sibilants or affricates in languages like Armenian and Baltic.
In Slavic languages, the PIE labiovelar *gʷ typically developed into:
Answer: gʲ or j
Explanation: Slavic languages typically show satem reflexes for PIE labiovelar *gʷ, often resulting in palatalized sounds such as /gʲ/ or /j/.
The Anatolian branch, including Hittite, is considered a clear example of a satem language due to its phonological developments.
Answer: False
Explanation: Anatolian languages, such as Hittite, are generally considered to fall outside the strict centum-satem division, often exhibiting unique developments or retaining earlier distinctions, rather than fitting neatly into the satem category.
Armenian and Albanian languages are definitively classified as satem languages by all linguists without exception.
Answer: False
Explanation: The classification of Armenian and Albanian within the centum-satem framework is debated among linguists, with some arguing they exhibit separate treatments of dorsal consonant rows rather than fitting neatly into either category.
Karl Brugmann's seminal 1886 work identified a primary division in Indo-European languages based on the treatment of labiovelars, distinguishing groups with and without labialization.
Answer: True
Explanation: Brugmann's research highlighted the contrast between languages that retained labialization in labiovelars (centum) and those where labiovelars merged with plain velars (satem), laying the groundwork for the modern classification.
Peter von Bradke's 1890 contribution defined the centum-satem division based on the treatment of PIE palatovelars as exclusively fricatives or pure K-sounds.
Answer: False
Explanation: Von Bradke associated the division with the treatment of PIE *palatal* series, distinguishing between those that became fricatives (satem) and those that yielded pure K-sounds (centum), rather than focusing solely on palatovelars.
The discoveries of Hittite and Tocharian languages in the early 20th century supported the prevailing idea of a simple phylogenetic split between eastern satem and western centum branches.
Answer: False
Explanation: These discoveries challenged the simple phylogenetic model, as languages like Hittite and Tocharian exhibited features that did not align neatly with a straightforward east-west centum-satem division.
The centum-satem isogloss is now primarily considered a phylogenetic division reflecting a single ancestral split.
Answer: False
Explanation: Contemporary linguistic consensus views the centum-satem isogloss more as an areal phenomenon, influenced by contact and diffusion, rather than a strict phylogenetic split originating from a single ancestral divergence.
The Hittite language's centum-like features challenged the simple phylogenetic division of Indo-European languages into centum and satem branches.
Answer: True
Explanation: Hittite's phonological characteristics, particularly its centum-like reflexes, complicated the established centum-satem dichotomy, suggesting a more complex historical development than a simple East-West split.
An isogloss is a historical linguistic theory explaining sound changes.
Answer: False
Explanation: An isogloss is a geographical boundary marking the limit of the prevalence of a particular linguistic feature, such as a specific pronunciation or grammatical construction.
The Anatolian branch of Indo-European languages, such as Hittite, presents a challenge to the simple centum-satem division because:
Answer: They are considered outside the strict centum-satem division, possibly retaining original distinctions.
Explanation: Anatolian languages do not fit neatly into the centum-satem dichotomy, suggesting that the split may not have been a simple phylogenetic division and that Anatolian might represent an early divergence or preserve older features.
The discovery of Hittite and Tocharian languages in the early 20th century led scholars to reconsider the centum-satem division primarily because:
Answer: They showed satem features in geographically western areas.
Explanation: The discovery of languages like Hittite and Tocharian, which did not fit the simple phylogenetic model (e.g., showing centum-like features in areas not typically associated with centum languages), prompted a re-evaluation of the centum-satem division.
What is the primary argument against viewing the centum-satem isogloss as a strict phylogenetic division?
Answer: Other isoglosses cross the centum-satem boundary, suggesting an areal spread.
Explanation: The fact that other linguistic boundaries (isoglosses) intersect the centum-satem line indicates that the division is more likely due to areal contact and diffusion rather than a single, clean phylogenetic split.
What is the significance of the "salmon problem" in Indo-European studies?
Answer: It involves the reconstructed PIE word for salmon showing divergent reflexes between centum and satem languages.
Explanation: The "salmon problem" refers to the differing reflexes of the reconstructed PIE word for salmon in centum and satem languages, providing data for linguistic analysis and hypothesis testing.
The classification of Armenian and Albanian languages within the centum-satem model is described as:
Answer: Debated, with some showing separate treatment of dorsal rows.
Explanation: Linguistic analysis of Armenian and Albanian suggests they do not fit perfectly into either category, exhibiting characteristics that lead to ongoing debate about their precise classification.
Which of the following statements about the centum-satem isogloss is accurate according to the source?
Answer: It is now generally considered an areal phenomenon due to contact-induced changes.
Explanation: The centum-satem isogloss is increasingly viewed as an areal feature, shaped by linguistic contact and diffusion across geographical regions, rather than a strict phylogenetic boundary.
The Kurgan hypothesis places the Proto-Indo-European homeland in Anatolia around the 7th millennium BCE.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Kurgan hypothesis posits the PIE homeland in the Pontic-Caspian steppe around the 4th millennium BCE. The Anatolian hypothesis places the origin in Anatolia around the 7th millennium BCE.
The Anatolian hypothesis links the spread of PIE to the development and diffusion of agriculture.
Answer: True
Explanation: Colin Renfrew's Anatolian hypothesis associates the expansion of PIE with the Neolithic spread of farming practices from Anatolia.
The Proto-Indo-European language is directly attested in ancient written records.
Answer: False
Explanation: Proto-Indo-European is a reconstructed language, inferred through comparative linguistic methods, rather than a language with direct written documentation.
The "Indo-European studies" field focuses solely on the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European language.
Answer: False
Explanation: Indo-European studies encompasses the reconstruction of PIE, but also its speakers, culture, and the historical development of its numerous daughter languages.
The debate over the Proto-Indo-European homeland primarily involves hypotheses concerning:
Answer: The original geographical location and time period of PIE speakers.
Explanation: The primary focus of PIE homeland debates is identifying the ancestral territory and temporal framework from which the language originated and subsequently spread.
The "Indo-European studies" field is concerned with:
Answer: The reconstruction of PIE, its speakers, culture, and daughter languages.
Explanation: This academic discipline encompasses a broad scope, including linguistic reconstruction, historical ethnography, and the comparative study of the entire Indo-European language family.
What is the "Proto-Indo-European phonology"?
Answer: The reconstructed system of sounds of PIE.
Explanation: Proto-Indo-European phonology refers to the systematic reconstruction of the sound inventory and phonetic rules of the ancestral PIE language.
The "Kurgan hypothesis" suggests the PIE homeland originated in:
Answer: The Pontic-Caspian steppe around the 4th millennium BCE.
Explanation: The Kurgan hypothesis, a prominent theory, locates the PIE homeland in the Pontic-Caspian steppe region during the 4th millennium BCE.
The "Indo-European migrations" are hypothesized to have spread the language family from its homeland. This is often linked to:
Answer: Archaeological cultures.
Explanation: The spread of Indo-European languages is frequently correlated with the expansion of specific archaeological cultures, such as those associated with the Kurgan hypothesis.
What is the significance of the "Indo-European Etymological Dictionary" (IEED)?
Answer: It is a reference work for reconstructing and analyzing PIE words and their history.
Explanation: The IEED is a comprehensive resource for etymological research, detailing the reconstruction and historical development of PIE vocabulary.
The "Proto-Indo-European society" is studied through:
Answer: Linguistic evidence, such as vocabulary related to social structure.
Explanation: Reconstructing aspects of PIE society relies heavily on linguistic data, particularly vocabulary pertaining to kinship, social organization, and daily life.