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The title 'chancellor' originated in the Holy Roman Empire, where it referred to the head of the imperial treasury.
Answer: False
Explanation: The title 'chancellor' originated in the Holy Roman Empire, referring to the head of the clerics at the Imperial chapel who managed the emperor's chancellery, responsible for issuing deeds and capitularies, not the imperial treasury.
The office of imperial archchancellor in the Holy Roman Empire was eventually bestowed upon the archbishops of Cologne.
Answer: False
Explanation: The office of imperial archchancellor in the Holy Roman Empire was eventually bestowed upon the archbishops of Mainz, not Cologne.
Emperor Ferdinand I established the Reichshofkanzlei in 1559 at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna.
Answer: True
Explanation: Emperor Ferdinand I indeed established the Reichshofkanzlei (imperial chancellery) in 1559 at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna.
The German Confederation, formed after the Napoleonic Wars, possessed a strong central government and a bicameral legislature.
Answer: False
Explanation: The German Confederation, formed after the Napoleonic Wars, lacked a central government or a legislature, possessing only a Bundestag that represented its member states.
The modern office of chancellor was established with the North German Confederation in 1867, following the Austro-Prussian War.
Answer: True
Explanation: The modern office of chancellor was indeed established with the North German Confederation on July 1, 1867, following the Austro-Prussian War.
During the German Empire (1871-1918), the chancellor was appointed by the Reichstag and was accountable to it.
Answer: False
Explanation: During the German Empire (1871-1918), the chancellor was appointed by the *Bundespräsidium* (Emperor of Germany) and was not accountable to the Reichstag until a constitutional reform in October 1918.
In October 1918, a constitutional reform required the German chancellor to have the confidence of parliament, similar to other European democracies.
Answer: True
Explanation: Indeed, a constitutional reform in October 1918 mandated that the German chancellor must have the confidence of parliament, aligning the system with other European parliamentary democracies.
After Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication, Prince Maximilian of Baden transferred the chancellorship to Hugo Haase, who then led the Council of the People's Deputies.
Answer: False
Explanation: After Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication, Prince Maximilian of Baden transferred the chancellorship to Friedrich Ebert, who then co-chaired the Council of the People's Deputies with Hugo Haase.
The Weimar Constitution established a single executive branch led by the Reich President, who also served as Chancellor.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Weimar Constitution established a two-part executive branch, consisting of a Reich President and a government led by a Reich Chancellor, with distinct roles for each.
Weimar-era chancellors often acted as decisive leaders within the cabinet, largely unconstrained by the Reich President's powers.
Answer: False
Explanation: Weimar-era chancellors were often constrained by the necessity of forming coalition governments and the significant powers of the Reich President, making them more mediators than decisive leaders.
The Reichstag in the Weimar Republic had the power to impeach the chancellor, ministers, and the president before the State Court.
Answer: True
Explanation: The Reichstag in the Weimar Republic indeed possessed the power to impeach the chancellor, ministers, and the president before the State Court for the German Reich.
Adolf Hitler's Enabling Act granted the chancellor full legislative powers for four years, requiring parliamentary consent for new laws.
Answer: False
Explanation: Adolf Hitler's Enabling Act granted the chancellor full legislative powers for four years, specifically allowing the cabinet to introduce laws *without* parliamentary consent, thereby sidelining the Reichstag.
After Paul von Hindenburg's death, Adolf Hitler merged the offices of Reich Chancellor and Reich President, adopting the title Führer und Reichskanzler.
Answer: True
Explanation: Following Paul von Hindenburg's death in 1934, Adolf Hitler merged the offices of Reich Chancellor and Reich President, adopting the title *Führer und Reichskanzler*.
In East Germany, the head of government held the title of Chancellor, similar to West Germany.
Answer: False
Explanation: In communist East Germany, the head of government was titled Minister President or chairman of the Council of Ministers of the GDR, not Chancellor, which differed from West Germany.
In the Holy Roman Empire, what was the primary responsibility of the 'chancellor' (cancellarius)?
Answer: Managing the emperor's chancellery, responsible for issuing deeds and capitularies.
Explanation: In the Holy Roman Empire, the 'chancellor' (cancellarius) was primarily responsible for managing the emperor's chancellery, which involved issuing deeds and capitularies.
Which archbishops were eventually bestowed with the office of imperial archchancellor in the Holy Roman Empire?
Answer: Archbishops of Mainz
Explanation: The office of imperial archchancellor in the Holy Roman Empire was eventually bestowed upon the archbishops of Mainz.
Where did Emperor Ferdinand I establish the Reichshofkanzlei in 1559?
Answer: Hofburg Palace in Vienna
Explanation: Emperor Ferdinand I established the Reichshofkanzlei in 1559 at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna.
What was a key difference between the German Confederation and the North German Confederation regarding government structure?
Answer: The German Confederation lacked a government or legislature, while the North German Confederation established the office of Bundeskanzler.
Explanation: The German Confederation lacked a government or legislature, possessing only a Bundestag representing its member states, whereas the North German Confederation established the office of Bundeskanzler as part of its executive.
When was the modern office of chancellor established in Germany, and what event immediately preceded its creation?
Answer: 1867, following the Austro-Prussian War.
Explanation: The modern office of chancellor was established with the North German Confederation on July 1, 1867, following the Prussian Army's victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.
Who was the first Reichskanzler when the North German Confederation transformed into the German Empire in 1871?
Answer: Otto von Bismarck
Explanation: Otto von Bismarck was the first Reichskanzler when the North German Confederation transformed into the German Empire in 1871, having previously served as Bundeskanzler.
What significant constitutional reform regarding the chancellor's power occurred in October 1918?
Answer: The chancellor was required to have the confidence of parliament, similar to other European democracies.
Explanation: In October 1918, a constitutional reform mandated that the chancellor must have the confidence of parliament, aligning the German system with other European parliamentary democracies.
Who became the head of government during the transitional period after Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication in November 1918?
Answer: Friedrich Ebert
Explanation: After Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication in November 1918, Chancellor Prince Maximilian of Baden transferred his office to Friedrich Ebert, who became the head of government during the transitional period.
According to the Weimar Constitution, what was the chancellor's primary responsibility regarding government policy?
Answer: To determine the government's policy guidelines.
Explanation: The Weimar Constitution stipulated that the chancellor's primary responsibility was to determine the government's policy guidelines.
What was a significant limitation faced by Weimar-era chancellors despite their power to determine policy guidelines?
Answer: Their power was limited by the necessity of forming coalition governments and the significant powers of the Reich President.
Explanation: Weimar-era chancellors found their power limited by the need to form coalition governments and the substantial powers of the Reich President, often making them mediators rather than decisive leaders.
How did Adolf Hitler rapidly accumulate power after becoming Chancellor in January 1933?
Answer: By passing the Enabling Act, which granted the chancellor full legislative powers without parliamentary consent.
Explanation: Adolf Hitler rapidly accumulated power by passing the Enabling Act, which granted the chancellor full legislative powers for four years, allowing the cabinet to introduce laws without parliamentary consent.
What change occurred to the offices of Reich Chancellor and Reich President after Paul von Hindenburg's death in 1934?
Answer: Adolf Hitler merged the offices, transferring the President's powers to himself under the title Führer und Reichskanzler.
Explanation: After Paul von Hindenburg's death in 1934, Adolf Hitler merged the offices of Reich Chancellor and Reich President, adopting the title *Führer und Reichskanzler*.
Who briefly succeeded Adolf Hitler as Chancellor after his suicide in April 1945?
Answer: Joseph Goebbels
Explanation: Joseph Goebbels briefly succeeded Adolf Hitler as Chancellor after his suicide in April 1945.
In communist East Germany, what was the title of the head of government?
Answer: Minister President or chairman of the Council of Ministers of the GDR
Explanation: In communist East Germany, the head of government was titled Minister President or chairman of the Council of Ministers of the GDR, as the position of chancellor did not exist.
Who served as state chancellor of the Austrian Empire after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806?
Answer: Prince Klemens von Metternich
Explanation: Prince Klemens von Metternich served as state chancellor of the Austrian Empire after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.
What was the role of the court chancellor in the Archduchy of Austria, established by Ferdinand II after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620?
Answer: To manage the internal and foreign affairs of the Habsburg monarchy.
Explanation: The court chancellor in the Archduchy of Austria, established by Ferdinand II, was responsible for managing the internal and foreign affairs of the Habsburg monarchy.
What was the 'Council of the People's Deputies,' and what role did it play during the revolutionary period of 1918-1919?
Answer: It was a provisional government that de facto assumed the roles of emperor, parliament, and federal council.
Explanation: The 'Council of the People's Deputies' was a provisional government during 1918-1919 that de facto assumed the roles of emperor, parliament, and federal council.
The federal chancellor of Germany is primarily responsible for leading the legislative branch of the government.
Answer: False
Explanation: The federal chancellor serves as the head of the federal government and the chief executive of the Federal Cabinet, leading the executive branch, not the legislative branch.
Since its formation in 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany has had more female chancellors than male chancellors.
Answer: False
Explanation: Since its formation in 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany has had ten chancellors: nine men and one woman, indicating more male chancellors than female.
Germany is referred to as a 'chancellor democracy' because the chancellor is formally the highest office in the country.
Answer: False
Explanation: Germany is referred to as a 'chancellor democracy' due to the chancellor's extensive powers to initiate government policy, making the office the clear focus of power, even though it is formally the third-highest office in the country.
The chancellor's authority in the Federal Republic of Germany primarily derives from their position as leader of the majority party or coalition in the Bundestag.
Answer: True
Explanation: The chancellor's authority in the Federal Republic of Germany primarily derives from the Basic Law and, practically, from their leadership of the majority party or coalition in the Bundestag.
Helmut Schmidt and Olaf Scholz are notable for having served as chancellor without also being chairman of their own political party during their tenure.
Answer: True
Explanation: Helmut Schmidt and Olaf Scholz are indeed notable for serving as chancellor without simultaneously holding the position of chairman of their own political party during their tenure.
Konrad Adenauer centralized major decisions and treated his ministers as extensions of his authority, helping to solidify the chancellorship as the focus of power.
Answer: True
Explanation: Konrad Adenauer centralized major decisions and treated his ministers as extensions of his authority, which significantly solidified the chancellorship as the clear focus of power in post-war Germany.
Which of the following is NOT a primary role of the Chancellor of Germany?
Answer: Commander-in-chief of the Bundeswehr during peacetime
Explanation: The Chancellor of Germany serves as commander-in-chief of the Bundeswehr only during a declared state of defense, not peacetime.
How many individuals have served as Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany since its formation in 1949?
Answer: Ten people, specifically nine men and one woman.
Explanation: Since its formation in 1949, ten individuals, comprising nine men and one woman, have served as Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany.
Why is Germany often referred to as a 'chancellor democracy'?
Answer: Because the Basic Law grants the chancellor extensive powers to initiate government policy, making the office the clear focus of power.
Explanation: Germany is often referred to as a 'chancellor democracy' because the Basic Law grants the chancellor extensive powers to initiate government policy, making the office the clear focus of power.
Which two chancellors are noted for not serving as chairman of their own political party during their tenure?
Answer: Helmut Schmidt and Olaf Scholz
Explanation: Helmut Schmidt and Olaf Scholz are the two chancellors who did not also serve as chairman of their own political party during their tenure.
How did Konrad Adenauer influence the role of the chancellorship in post-war Germany?
Answer: He centralized nearly all major decisions to himself, solidifying the chancellorship as the clear focus of power.
Explanation: Konrad Adenauer centralized nearly all major decisions to himself, thereby solidifying the chancellorship as the clear focus of power in post-war Germany.
From where does the chancellor's authority primarily derive in the Federal Republic of Germany?
Answer: From their position as the leader of the party or coalition of parties that holds a majority of seats in the Bundestag.
Explanation: The chancellor's authority in the Federal Republic of Germany primarily derives from their position as the leader of the party or coalition of parties that holds a majority of seats in the Bundestag.
The federal government (Bundesregierung) in Germany consists solely of the chancellor and the President of the Bundestag.
Answer: False
Explanation: The federal government (*Bundesregierung*) in Germany consists of the chancellor and the various cabinet ministers, not solely the chancellor and the President of the Bundestag.
The chancellor must obtain parliamentary approval for each individual minister they recommend to the president.
Answer: False
Explanation: The chancellor determines the composition of the Federal Cabinet and recommends ministers to the president without requiring parliamentary approval for individual ministers.
Ludwig Erhard's cabinet in the mid-1960s was the smallest in German history, with only 10 ministers.
Answer: False
Explanation: Ludwig Erhard's cabinet in the mid-1960s was, in fact, the largest in German history, comprising 22 ministers, not the smallest.
The 'chancellor principle' allows individual ministers to operate their departments independently, even if it contradicts the chancellor's policy guidelines.
Answer: False
Explanation: The 'chancellor principle' dictates that the chancellor is responsible for all government policies, and their guidelines are legally binding directives for ministers. Individual ministers operate under the 'principle of ministerial autonomy,' but their policies must align with the chancellor's broader guidelines.
The 'cabinet principle' dictates that disagreements between federal ministers are resolved by the President of Germany.
Answer: False
Explanation: The 'cabinet principle' dictates that disagreements between federal ministers are resolved collectively by the cabinet through a majority vote, not by the President of Germany.
What is the chancellor's role in determining the composition of the Federal Cabinet?
Answer: The chancellor determines the composition, recommends ministers to the president, and sets their duties without parliamentary approval for individuals.
Explanation: The chancellor determines the composition of the Federal Cabinet, recommends ministers to the president for appointment, and sets their duties without requiring parliamentary approval for individual ministers.
According to the 'chancellor principle' (Richtlinienkompetenz), what is the chancellor responsible for?
Answer: All government policies, with their guidelines being legally binding directives for ministers.
Explanation: The 'chancellor principle' (Richtlinienkompetenz) makes the chancellor responsible for all government policies, with their guidelines serving as legally binding directives for cabinet ministers.
How are disagreements between federal ministers resolved according to the 'cabinet principle'?
Answer: By a majority vote within the cabinet.
Explanation: According to the 'cabinet principle,' disagreements between federal ministers are resolved collectively by the cabinet through a majority vote.
What are the three core principles outlined in Article 65 of the Basic Law that define the executive branch's function?
Answer: The 'chancellor principle,' 'principle of ministerial autonomy,' and 'cabinet principle.'
Explanation: Article 65 of the Basic Law outlines three core principles: the 'chancellor principle,' 'principle of ministerial autonomy,' and 'cabinet principle,' which define the executive branch's function.
What does the 'principle of ministerial autonomy' entail for individual cabinet ministers?
Answer: Ministers have the freedom to oversee their departmental operations and prepare legislative proposals, provided their policies align with the chancellor's broader guidelines.
Explanation: The 'principle of ministerial autonomy' grants ministers the freedom to oversee their departmental operations and prepare legislative proposals, provided their policies align with the chancellor's broader guidelines.
A Kanzlerkandidat is typically the leading candidate for the federal election put forward by a minor party that does not currently hold the chancellorship.
Answer: False
Explanation: A *Kanzlerkandidat* is the leading candidate for the federal election put forward by a *major* party, not a minor one, that does not currently hold the chancellorship.
A 'chancellor majority' requires a simple majority of the Bundestag members present at the time of the vote.
Answer: False
Explanation: A 'chancellor majority' requires a majority of *all elected members* of the Bundestag, not merely a simple majority of those present at the time of the vote.
If a nominee for chancellor fails to be elected in the first voting phase, the President of Germany immediately dissolves the Bundestag and calls for new elections.
Answer: False
Explanation: If a nominee for chancellor fails to be elected in the first voting phase, the right of nomination transfers to the Bundestag, which can hold multiple ballots over two weeks before the President considers dissolving the Bundestag.
As of 2025, there have been 26 chancellor elections in the Federal Republic of Germany, with 24 being regular elections and two being constructive votes of no confidence.
Answer: True
Explanation: As of 2025, the Federal Republic of Germany has indeed held 26 chancellor elections, consisting of 24 regular elections and two constructive votes of no confidence.
The election of Friedrich Merz was the only chancellor election to proceed beyond the first voting phase as of 2025.
Answer: True
Explanation: As of 2025, the election of Friedrich Merz stands as the sole chancellor election that proceeded beyond the first voting phase.
A 'constructive vote of no confidence' allows the Bundestag to remove a chancellor without immediately electing a successor, creating a temporary power vacuum.
Answer: False
Explanation: A 'constructive vote of no confidence' requires the Bundestag to elect a new chancellor simultaneously with the removal of the incumbent, specifically to prevent a power vacuum and ensure governmental stability.
The constructive vote of no confidence against Helmut Schmidt by Helmut Kohl in 1982 was unsuccessful.
Answer: False
Explanation: The constructive vote of no confidence against Helmut Schmidt by Helmut Kohl in 1982 was successful, leading to Helmut Kohl becoming chancellor.
A chancellor can submit a 'motion of confidence' to the Bundestag, and if lost, they can request the president to dissolve the Bundestag for snap elections.
Answer: True
Explanation: A chancellor can submit a 'motion of confidence' to the Bundestag, and if this motion is lost, they have the option to request the president to dissolve the Bundestag, potentially leading to snap elections.
All six motions of confidence submitted by chancellors were genuine attempts to test parliamentary support, not strategic moves for snap elections.
Answer: False
Explanation: Of the six motions of confidence submitted by chancellors, only two were genuine attempts to test parliamentary support; the other four were strategic moves to deliberately trigger snap elections.
How is the Chancellor of Germany elected and appointed?
Answer: Elected by the Bundestag based on a proposal from the federal president, without debate.
Explanation: The chancellor is elected by the Bundestag based on a proposal from the federal president, with the election occurring without debate, as outlined in Article 63 of the Basic Law.
What is a Kanzlerkandidat in the context of German federal elections?
Answer: The leading candidate for the federal election put forward by a major party not currently holding the chancellorship.
Explanation: A *Kanzlerkandidat* is the leading candidate for the federal election put forward by a major party that does not currently hold the chancellorship.
What does a 'chancellor majority' (Kanzlermehrheit) require for a chancellor's election?
Answer: A majority of all elected members of the Bundestag.
Explanation: A 'chancellor majority' (Kanzlermehrheit) requires a majority of all elected members of the Bundestag for a chancellor's election, not just a simple majority of those present.
What happens in the first voting phase of a regular chancellor election if the President's nominee secures the 'chancellor majority'?
Answer: The president appoints them, and the president of the Bundestag administers the oath of office.
Explanation: If the President's nominee secures the 'chancellor majority' in the first voting phase, the president appoints them, and the president of the Bundestag administers the oath of office.
If the Bundestag fails to elect a chancellor after two weeks of balloting, what is one of the President of Germany's options?
Answer: To dissolve the Bundestag and call for new elections.
Explanation: If the Bundestag fails to elect a chancellor after two weeks of balloting, the President of Germany has the option to dissolve the Bundestag and call for new elections.
As of 2025, which chancellor election was the only one to proceed to the second voting phase?
Answer: Friedrich Merz's election.
Explanation: As of 2025, the election of Friedrich Merz was the only chancellor election to proceed to the second voting phase.
What is the primary purpose of a 'constructive vote of no confidence' in the German political system?
Answer: To enable the Bundestag to replace a sitting chancellor only if it simultaneously elects a new one, preventing a power vacuum.
Explanation: The primary purpose of a 'constructive vote of no confidence' is to enable the Bundestag to replace a sitting chancellor only if it simultaneously elects a new one, thereby preventing a power vacuum.
Which constructive vote of no confidence was successful in German history?
Answer: The vote against Helmut Schmidt by Helmut Kohl in 1982.
Explanation: The constructive vote of no confidence against Helmut Schmidt by Helmut Kohl in 1982 was successful, leading to Kohl becoming chancellor.
If a chancellor loses a 'motion of confidence' in the Bundestag, what is one of the additional options they gain?
Answer: They can request the president to dissolve the Bundestag for a snap election.
Explanation: If a chancellor loses a 'motion of confidence' in the Bundestag, they can request the president to dissolve the Bundestag for a snap election.
How many times has a chancellor submitted a motion of confidence, and how many of these were primarily to trigger snap elections?
Answer: Six times, with four for snap elections.
Explanation: A chancellor has submitted a motion of confidence a total of six times, with four of these instances being strategic moves to deliberately trigger snap elections.
How many chancellor elections have taken place in the Federal Republic of Germany as of 2025, and how many were regular elections?
Answer: 26 total, with 24 regular elections.
Explanation: As of 2025, there have been 26 chancellor elections in the Federal Republic of Germany, with 24 of these being regular elections.
The vice chancellor is appointed by the President of Germany from among the cabinet ministers.
Answer: False
Explanation: The vice chancellor is appointed by the chancellor from among the cabinet ministers, as outlined in Article 69.1 of the Basic Law, not by the President of Germany.
Walter Scheel was the only vice chancellor to serve as acting chancellor, following Willy Brandt's resignation in 1974.
Answer: True
Explanation: Walter Scheel was indeed the only vice chancellor to serve as acting chancellor, doing so for nine days in May 1974 after Willy Brandt's resignation.
Ludwig Erhard, Willy Brandt, and Angela Merkel are the three individuals who have held both the office of Vice Chancellor and Chancellor of Germany.
Answer: False
Explanation: The three individuals who have held both the office of Vice Chancellor and subsequently Chancellor of Germany are Ludwig Erhard, Willy Brandt, and Olaf Scholz, not Angela Merkel.
The current Vice Chancellor of Germany, Lars Klingbeil, also holds the portfolio of Minister of Finance.
Answer: True
Explanation: The current Vice Chancellor of Germany, Lars Klingbeil, also holds the portfolio of Minister of Finance in the Merz cabinet.
The Palais Schaumburg in Berlin serves as the primary official seat of the German Chancellor since 2001.
Answer: False
Explanation: Since 2001, the primary official seat of the German Chancellor is the Federal Chancellery in Berlin, while the Palais Schaumburg in Bonn serves as a secondary official seat.
In international correspondence, the Chancellor of Germany is referred to as 'The Right Honourable Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany'.
Answer: False
Explanation: In international correspondence, the Chancellor of Germany is referred to as 'His/Her Excellency the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany', not 'The Right Honourable Chancellor'.
As of 2020, the Chancellor of Germany receives an annual salary of €220,000 and a €22,000 bonus.
Answer: True
Explanation: As of 2020, the Chancellor of Germany receives an annual salary of €220,000 and a €22,000 bonus.
What is the official title of the head of government in Germany?
Answer: Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany
Explanation: The official title of the head of government in Germany is the Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany.
What is the primary role of the vice chancellor in Germany?
Answer: To deputise for the chancellor if they are absent or unable to perform their duties.
Explanation: The primary role of the vice chancellor in Germany is to deputise for the chancellor if they are absent or unable to perform their duties, ensuring continuity in leadership.
Which three individuals have held both the office of Vice Chancellor and subsequently the office of Chancellor of Germany?
Answer: Ludwig Erhard, Willy Brandt, Olaf Scholz
Explanation: Ludwig Erhard, Willy Brandt, and Olaf Scholz are the three individuals who have held both the office of Vice Chancellor and subsequently the office of Chancellor of Germany.
What is the official seat of the German Chancellor since 2001?
Answer: The Federal Chancellery in Berlin
Explanation: Since 2001, the official seat of the German Chancellor is the Federal Chancellery in Berlin.
What is the correct style of address for a male Chancellor of Germany in German?
Answer: Herr Bundeskanzler
Explanation: In German, the correct style of address for a male Chancellor of Germany is *Herr Bundeskanzler*.
What is the annual salary and bonus for the Chancellor of Germany as of 2020?
Answer: €220,000 salary and €22,000 bonus.
Explanation: As of 2020, the Chancellor of Germany receives an annual salary of €220,000 and a €22,000 bonus.
What is the formal international style of address for the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany?
Answer: His/Her Excellency the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany
Explanation: The formal international style of address for the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany is 'His/Her Excellency the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany'.
What is the secondary official seat of the German Chancellor, located in Bonn?
Answer: Palais Schaumburg
Explanation: The Palais Schaumburg in Bonn serves as the secondary official seat of the German Chancellor.