Explanation: Michael Witzel argues that dowry was not a significant practice during the Vedic period, contrary to the assertion that it was widespread and evidenced in early Vedic literature.

Explanation: MacDonell and Keith's interpretation of ancient Indian texts suggests bridewealth was more common than dowry, except in specific instances such as when the bride had a physical defect.

Explanation: Arrian and Megasthenes observed that dowry practices were infrequent or absent during Alexander the Great's conquest period, noting that beauty was valued over dowry.

Explanation: Al-Biruni, an 11th-century scholar, observed that in India, no dowry was settled between parties, and the groom typically gave a present to the wife.

Explanation: The transfer of Bombay to the British Crown in 1661 was indeed part of a dowry agreement linked to the marriage of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza, daughter of the Portuguese King.

Explanation: Michael Witzel argued that dowry was not a significant practice during the Vedic period, based on his interpretation of ancient Indian literature.

Explanation: Historical accounts from Arrian and Megasthenes suggest that dowry practices were infrequent or absent in India around 300 BCE.

Explanation: The territory transferred to the British Crown in 1661 as part of a royal dowry was Bombay.

Explanation: Traditionally, dowry was primarily intended as the daughter's inheritance, recognizing the severance of her ties to her parental family upon marriage. While it provided financial security, its conceptual basis was inheritance rather than a guarantee independent of inheritance rights.

Explanation: Hypergamy, the practice of marrying a woman to someone of higher social status, is strongly linked to the dowry system in India, often driving dowry payments to enhance family prestige.

Explanation: In North India's patrilocal system, where a bride moves to her husband's family, dowry is often conceptualized as a form of premortem inheritance for the bride.

Explanation: Marriage kinship structures in South India, often involving cross-cousins and potential land inheritance for brides, tend to decrease dowry prevalence in favor of bride price systems, contrary to the statement.

Explanation: A 1980 study indicated a generational gap, finding that while younger generations viewed dowry as unimportant, a significant portion of their parents still expected it, meaning it was not completely abandoned.

Explanation: Dowry prevalence is generally higher in Northern states across all socioeconomic classes compared to Southern states, where bride price is more common.

Explanation: Traditionally, dowry was viewed as the daughter's inheritance, recognizing the severance of her ties with her parental family upon marriage. It also served as a means of social and economic equalization between the families.

Explanation: Hypergamy, the practice of marrying a woman to someone of higher social status, is identified as a significant driver for dowry payments, particularly among upper castes in India.

Explanation: Within North India's patrilocal system, dowry is sometimes viewed as a form of premortem inheritance for the bride, acknowledging her transition to her husband's family.

Explanation: Compared to North India, marriages in South India, often involving closer family relations, tend to decrease dowry prevalence in favor of bride price systems.

Explanation: A 1980 study revealed a generational difference, with students largely rejecting dowry while a significant percentage of parents continued to expect it.

Explanation: Northern states are characterized by a higher likelihood of dowry participation across all classes, in contrast to regions where bride price is more prevalent.

Explanation: India has enacted laws, such as the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961, and specific sections in the Indian Penal Code (e.g., 304B and 498A), to prohibit the demand and payment of dowry and address related crimes.

Explanation: The Hindu Succession Act of 1956 granted daughters equal inheritance rights but did not abolish the practice of dowry, which persisted as a social mechanism for property transfer at marriage.

Explanation: Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code was enacted to protect women against dowry harassment and cruelty perpetrated by their husbands and in-laws.

Explanation: Section 304B of the Indian Penal Code specifically addresses dowry deaths, not general murder cases, and establishes a presumption of guilt for the husband and his family under specific conditions.

Explanation: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, addresses multiple forms of abuse, not solely financial abuse.

Explanation: The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, prohibits the giving or taking of dowry, but it excludes voluntary gifts given to the bride.

Explanation: Section 304B of the Indian Penal Code specifically addresses dowry deaths.

Explanation: The Hindu Succession Act of 1956 granted daughters equal inheritance rights, though dowry persisted as a social mechanism for property distribution at marriage.

Explanation: Section 304B of the Indian Penal Code creates a legal presumption that the husband and his family caused the death if a woman dies unnaturally within seven years of marriage, having been subjected to dowry demands.

Explanation: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, aims to protect women against physical, emotional, economic, and sexual abuse, as well as intimidation and coercion.

Explanation: Section 113B of the Indian Evidence Act creates a presumption of guilt for the husband and his family if a woman dies unnaturally within seven years of marriage, having been subjected to dowry demands.

Explanation: The term 'cognizable offense' in the context of dowry laws signifies that police have the authority to arrest a suspect without a warrant and commence an investigation without prior magistrate approval.

Explanation: The dowry system can impose a significant financial burden on the bride's family and has been linked to severe crimes against women, including emotional abuse, physical injury, and death.

Explanation: The 'menace of dowry' refers to the coercive demands and dictation of gifts by the groom's family, rather than voluntary wedding presents.

Explanation: Dowry-related crimes encompass a range of offenses, including emotional abuse, physical violence, torture, harassment, abetment to suicide, and dowry death.

Explanation: "Bride burning" refers to a bride being set ablaze by her husband or his family, typically due to dissatisfaction with dowry demands, not a voluntary act by the bride's family against the groom's property.

Explanation: Cruelty, in the context of dowry crimes, is defined as torture or harassment aimed at forcing compliance with dowry demands, not merely any disagreement between spouses.

Explanation: Abetment to suicide is considered a dowry crime when continuous abuse or harassment by the husband or his family leads a woman to commit suicide.

Explanation: The 'menace of dowry' specifically refers to the coercive demands and dictation of gifts by the groom's family upon the bride's family.

Explanation: While physical violence, abetment to suicide, and dowry death are recognized dowry-related crimes, disputes over property inheritance unrelated to marriage are not specifically categorized as such within the context of dowry laws.

Explanation: "Bride burning" is a term for dowry death where a bride is set ablaze by her husband or his family, typically as a consequence of unmet dowry demands.

Explanation: In dowry crimes, cruelty is defined as torture or harassment inflicted to compel the woman or her family to meet demands for property or valuable security.

Explanation: Abetment to suicide is linked to dowry-related abuse when continuous abuse or harassment by the husband or his family compels a woman to commit suicide.

Explanation: The 2005 documentary "Runaway Grooms" exposed the practice of Indo-Canadian men abandoning brides in India after receiving dowry, subsequently returning to Canada.

Explanation: The Supreme Court's 2014 ruling in the Arnesh Kumar case stipulated that arrests under Section 498A of the IPC require magistrate approval, thereby prohibiting automatic arrests based solely on a wife's complaint.

Explanation: Criticisms of India's dowry laws suggest they are ineffective due to vague statutes and poor enforcement, rather than strong enforcement.

Explanation: The Atul Subhash suicide case brought attention to issues concerning men's rights in marital conflicts and the impact of dowry and domestic violence laws on men.

Explanation: In 2014, the Supreme Court ruled that arrests under Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code require magistrate approval, aiming to prevent arbitrary arrests and misuse of the law.

Explanation: Some feminists criticized the Supreme Court's Arnesh Kumar ruling, believing it weakened women's negotiating power and made it harder for victims to seek justice and protection.

Explanation: A primary criticism is that India's dowry laws are often vague, poorly enforced, and undermined by prevailing societal norms.

Explanation: In the Preeti Gupta case, the Supreme Court noted the misuse of anti-dowry laws and recommended more detailed investigations into such cases.

Explanation: The Atul Subhash suicide case highlighted societal issues including men's rights in marital conflicts, the impact of dowry laws on men, and concerns regarding judicial processes.

Explanation: According to 2012 statistics, the approximate conviction rate for dowry offenses in India was 15%.

Explanation: According to 2012 statistics, the approximate conviction rate for dowry offenses in India was 15%.

Explanation: The dowry system in India, commonly referred to as 'dahej', involves the bride's family providing gifts, cash, or property to the groom and his family as a condition of marriage.

Explanation: Among Indian Muslims, 'jahez' refers to the dowry provided by the bride's family to the groom's family. This is distinct from 'mahr', which is the dower required by Sharia law for the groom to give to the bride.

Explanation: 'Stridhan' historically referred to property or valuable security given to the bride, intended to provide her with financial security and control over her assets, not given to the groom's family.

Explanation: The dowry system in India is also known as 'dahej' in Hindi.

Explanation: In Indian Muslim contexts, 'jahez' refers to the dowry given by the bride's family to the groom's family, which is distinct from 'mahr', the dower mandated by Sharia law for the groom to provide to the bride.

Explanation: Historically, 'stridhan' (woman's property) was intended to provide the bride with economic security and control over her assets, often comprising the dowry given to her.