Explanation: While euphoria can be a pathological sign in neurological or psychiatric disorders, it is also generally defined as a normal state of great happiness and well-being.

Explanation: Thomas Laycock indeed described euphoria as bodily well-being and hopefulness, and recognized its pathological significance when misplaced in terminal illnesses.

Explanation: Freud's 1884 monograph *Über Coca* detailed his observations of cocaine-induced euphoria, noting increased self-control and vigor, which he termed 'the normal euphoria of a healthy person.'

Explanation: Carl Wernicke lectured about the *abnormal* euphoria observed in patients with mania, distinguishing it from normal feelings of well-being.

Explanation: A 1920 *Popular Science* article stated that euphoria normally makes life worth living and motivates drug use, also noting its potential for being 'ill-formed' in mental illnesses.

Explanation: Robert S. Woodworth's 1921 textbook described euphoria as the *opposite* of fatigue, an organic state of feeling good and being more ready for activity.

Explanation: Harris Isbell redefined euphoria in the 1950s to focus on objective signs of morphine administration, such as pupil constriction, due to the difficulty in objectively evaluating subjective feelings of well-being.

Explanation: In 1957, D. A. Cahal viewed opioid euphoria as an effect that *enhances* the value of a major analgesic, not as medically undesirable.

Explanation: The 1977 *A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry* stated that in a psychiatric context, euphoria always carries a pathological connotation, often appearing bland and out of context as a sign of cerebral disease.

Explanation: The etymological origin of 'euphoria' is from Ancient Greek 'eu' meaning 'well' and 'pherō' meaning 'to bear,' signifying 'bearing well' or 'feeling good.'

Explanation: Euphoria is generally defined as the experience or affect of pleasure or excitement, characterized by intense feelings of well-being and happiness, which can be a normal or pathological state.

Explanation: The word 'euphoria' originates from the Ancient Greek 'eu' (well) and 'pherō' (to bear), signifying a state of 'bearing well' or 'feeling good.'

Explanation: An early 1706 English dictionary defined euphoria as 'the well bearing of the operation of a medicine,' referring to a patient feeling eased or relieved by its effects.

Explanation: Thomas Laycock, an English physician in the 1860s, described euphoria as bodily well-being and hopefulness, specifically noting its pathological presentation in the final stages of some terminal illnesses.

Explanation: In *Über Coca* (1884), Sigmund Freud described cocaine as inducing a state he termed 'the normal euphoria of a healthy person,' characterized by increased self-control, vigor, and work capability.

Explanation: Around 1890, Carl Wernicke focused his lectures on the *abnormal* euphoria seen in patients with mania, distinguishing it from typical feelings of well-being.

Explanation: Robert S. Woodworth's 1921 textbook characterized euphoria as an organic state opposite to fatigue, signifying a feeling of well-being and readiness for activity.

Explanation: Harris Isbell redefined euphoria in the 1950s to include objective signs of morphine administration because he found subjective feelings of well-being challenging to evaluate objectively in research.

Explanation: D. A. Cahal, in 1957, considered opioid euphoria to be an effect that enhances the value of a major analgesic, rather than an undesirable side effect.

Explanation: The 1977 *A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry* states that in a psychiatric context, euphoria always has a pathological connotation, often described as bland and out of context, indicating cerebral disease.

Explanation: Intense euphoria is believed to be generated by the simultaneous activation of multiple functionally interrelated hedonic hotspots within the brain's reward system, not by isolated activation.

Explanation: Hedonic hotspots are functionally *interrelated* neural structures within the brain's reward system, meaning their activation is interconnected, not independent.

Explanation: Musical anhedonia affects approximately 5% of the population and is characterized by the *inability* to experience pleasure from emotionally arousing music, despite perceiving the emotion.

Explanation: A 2019 clinical study concluded that *increased* dopamine neurotransmission is a necessary condition for pleasurable hedonic reactions to music in humans, implying that decreasing it would not enhance pleasure.

Explanation: Intense euphoria is believed to result from the simultaneous activation of all hedonic hotspots within the brain's reward system, which are functionally interrelated pleasure centers.

Explanation: Hedonic hotspots are functionally interrelated neural structures in the brain that serve as pleasure centers, generating feelings of pleasure intrinsically or extrinsically.

Explanation: The simultaneous activation of all hedonic hotspots within the brain's reward system is likely necessary for generating intense euphoria, as these centers are functionally interconnected.

Explanation: Neuroimaging studies indicate that music induces euphoria by strongly increasing dopamine neurotransmission in the brain's dopaminergic pathways projecting to the striatum, a key part of the reward system.

Explanation: Musical anhedonia is a condition where individuals can perceive emotion in music but do not experience pleasure from it, affecting approximately 5% of the population.

Explanation: A 2019 clinical study concluded that increased dopamine neurotransmission is a necessary condition for humans to experience pleasurable hedonic reactions to music.

Explanation: A euphoriant is a psychoactive drug that induces euphoria, characterized by intense feelings of happiness and excitement, not anxiety and distress.

Explanation: Euphoriants are largely considered addictive because they activate the brain's reward system, leading to reinforcing properties and a strong desire for repeated use.

Explanation: Nicotine is considered a mild euphoriant in some individuals, with effects generally less intense than stronger dopaminergic stimulants like methamphetamine.

Explanation: The primary psychoactive ingredients in areca nut chewing responsible for euphoria are arecoline and arecaidine, not caffeine and theobromine.

Explanation: Certain depressants, including alcohol in moderate doses, GHB, and ketamine, are capable of producing euphoria despite their general calming effects.

Explanation: The euphoriant effects of barbiturates and benzodiazepines are determined by the drug's speed of onset, increasing dose, and method of administration, rather than primarily by the user's personality.

Explanation: Benzodiazepines tend to *enhance* opioid-induced euphoria, a combination that also carries significant risks.

Explanation: Pregabalin induces *dose-dependent* euphoria, meaning its intensity increases with higher doses, particularly at supratherapeutic levels.

Explanation: Gabapentin-induced euphoria is characterized as opioid-like but *less intense* than opioid-induced euphoria.

Explanation: Ethosuximide and perampanel, both antiepileptic drugs, are known to produce euphoria even at their therapeutic doses.

Explanation: μ-Opioid receptor agonists cause euphoria, while κ-opioid receptor agonists, like dynorphin, are known to cause dysphoria.

Explanation: Traditional psychedelic drugs like LSD and psilocybin can induce euphoria but are notable for *lacking addictive qualities*, distinguishing them from many other euphoriants.

Explanation: The Global Drug Survey indeed reported that MDMA, LSD, and psilocybin mushrooms received the highest positive rankings on the Net Pleasure Index among recreational drugs surveyed.

Explanation: While acute exogenous glucocorticoid administration can produce euphoria, this effect is *not* observed with long-term exposure, suggesting a transient nature.

Explanation: Naloxone is an opioid antagonist used to reverse opioid overdose and does not induce euphoria; amphetamine, cocaine, and fentanyl are all known euphoriants.

Explanation: The euphoric effect of areca nut chewing is primarily attributed to arecoline, a muscarinic receptor partial agonist, and arecaidine, a GABA reuptake inhibitor.

Explanation: Alcohol in moderate doses, γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), and ketamine are depressants known to produce euphoric effects.

Explanation: The euphoriant effects of barbiturates and benzodiazepines are influenced by the drug's speed of onset, the dose administered, and the method of administration.

Explanation: Pregabalin induces dose-dependent euphoria, meaning the euphoric effect becomes more pronounced and frequent at higher, particularly supratherapeutic, doses.

Explanation: κ-Opioid receptor agonists, such as dynorphin, are known to cause dysphoria, a mood state characterized by profound discontent, which is the opposite of euphoria.

Explanation: THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) is a cannabinoid receptor 1 agonist and a well-known euphoriant derived from the cannabis plant.

Explanation: Nitrous oxide (N₂O), commonly known as laughing gas, is an inhalant specifically mentioned for its ability to induce euphoria.

Explanation: Traditional psychedelic drugs such as LSD and psilocybin are unique among many euphoriants because they can induce euphoria without possessing addictive qualities.

Explanation: The Global Drug Survey identified MDMA, LSD, and psilocybin mushrooms as the recreational drugs ranked most positively on the Net Pleasure Index by participants.

Explanation: Acute administration of exogenous glucocorticoids can induce euphoria, but this mood elevation is not sustained with long-term exposure.

Explanation: Muscimol is an example of a GABA_A receptor positive allosteric modulator or agonist that functions as a euphoriant, alongside substances like alcohol and benzodiazepines.

Explanation: Cocaine and amphetamine are classified as psychostimulants, acting as classical dopamine reuptake inhibitors or dopamine releasing agents, respectively.

Explanation: Gabapentinoids are α2δ ligands, and pregabalin is an example listed as a euphoriant within this class of medications.

Explanation: Fasting has been linked to improved mood, a sense of well-being, and in some cases, euphoria, with potential applications in treating depression.

Explanation: The provided source mentions aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to or making music, and dancing as natural activities that can induce euphoria, but not reading complex philosophical texts.

Explanation: The main categories of stimuli listed as inducing euphoria are psychoactive drugs, natural rewards, and social activities; extreme physical pain is not included.

Explanation: 'Runner's high' and 'rower's high' are colloquial terms for exercise-induced euphoria, a transient emotional state of pleasure and well-being experienced during or after intense physical activity.

Explanation: Euphoria is indeed strongly associated with hypomania and mania, which are neuropsychiatric states defined by a pathological heightening of mood.

Explanation: Euphoria sclerotica is a recognized syndrome in multiple sclerosis patients, characterized by euphoria alongside other cognitive and behavioral dysfunctions.

Explanation: Gender euphoria is the *satisfaction or enjoyment* felt due to consistency between gender identity and gendered features, serving as the positive counterpart to gender dysphoria.

Explanation: Studies have recorded euphoria associated with experiences of intersex variation and their diagnoses, such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia, when these align with identity and social recognition.

Explanation: Gender euphoria is defined as the satisfaction or enjoyment experienced when there is consistency between a person's gender identity and their gendered features, contrasting with gender dysphoria.