Explanation: The period from 1920 to 1946 in Hungary is commonly referred to as the Regency or the Horthy era, reflecting the governance under Regent Miklós Horthy, rather than a formal 'Horthy Republic'.

Explanation: Miklós Horthy served as the Regent of Hungary, not as King, during the period from 1920 to 1944. Hungary maintained the legal status of a kingdom but lacked a reigning monarch.

Explanation: Upon assuming power, Horthy established an authoritarian regime, not a democratic system. While a parliament existed, Horthy held significant dictatorial powers, including the ability to dissolve the legislature.

Explanation: Following Charles IV's unsuccessful attempts to reclaim the throne in 1921, the Hungarian Diet passed legislation formally dethroning him and permanently excluding the Habsburg dynasty from the Hungarian throne.

Explanation: As Regent, Miklós Horthy possessed significant executive authority, including the power to dissolve the Hungarian Diet at his discretion, which was a key feature of his authoritarian rule.

Explanation: While Hungary's regime under Horthy exhibited authoritarian, nationalist, and anti-communist characteristics, often described as para-fascist, historians debate whether it constituted a 'fully developed fascist state' in the same vein as Germany or Italy. Its specific political and economic structures differed.

Explanation: The term 'Regency' refers to the period when Miklós Horthy served as Regent, representing an absent monarch, within a constitutional framework that maintained the monarchy's legal status. It was not a republic led by an elected president.

Explanation: The 'monarchy without a king' described a constitutional framework where the monarchical functions were performed by a Regent (Horthy), maintaining the legal structure of a kingdom even without a reigning monarch.

Explanation: Historian István Deák characterized Hungary between 1919 and 1944 as a rightist country, emphasizing its 'nationalist Christian' policies and opposition to Bolshevism, cosmopolitanism, and Freemasonry, rather than describing it as a leftist state.

Explanation: The 'White Terror' in Hungary following World War I was characterized by violent purges carried out by anti-communist and monarchist elements against perceived leftist sympathizers and communists, not the other way around.

Explanation: The Horthy regime's authoritarian, nationalist, conservative, and anti-communist orientation has led many historians to classify it as para-fascist.

Explanation: The period of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1920 to 1946 is commonly referred to as the Regency or the Horthy era, denoting the governance under Regent Miklós Horthy.

Explanation: Miklós Horthy served as the Regent of Hungary for the majority of the period between 1920 and 1944, acting as the head of state in the absence of a monarch.

Explanation: Miklós Horthy established an authoritarian political system characterized by centralized power and limited democratic freedoms, often described as para-fascist.

Explanation: Former King Charles IV made two attempts to reclaim the throne in 1921. Both failed due to the loyalty of the Hungarian Army to Regent Horthy, resulting in Charles's arrest and exile.

Explanation: In November 1921, the Hungarian Diet passed legislation that nullified the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, thereby formally dethroning Charles IV and permanently ending the Habsburg claim to the Hungarian throne.

Explanation: As Regent, Miklós Horthy held significant executive powers, including the authority to dissolve the Hungarian Diet, which underscored the authoritarian nature of his rule.

Explanation: Factors such as economic dependence on Germany, discriminatory antisemitic legislation, and participation in the Holocaust are cited by historians when debating Hungary's classification within the broader context of international fascism during this period.

Explanation: The 'Regency' refers to the period when Miklós Horthy served as Regent, exercising the powers of the head of state in a kingdom that legally retained its monarchical status but had no reigning king.

Explanation: The term 'monarchy without a king' describes Hungary's constitutional status from 1920 to 1946, where Miklós Horthy served as Regent, fulfilling the role of head of state within a monarchical framework.

Explanation: István Deák described Hungary during this period as a rightist state with a 'nationalist Christian' policy, characterized by opposition to Bolshevism and cosmopolitanism, and centered around Admiral Horthy.

Explanation: The motto of the Kingdom of Hungary during this period was *Regnum Mariae Patrona Hungariae*, translating to 'Kingdom of Mary, the Patron of Hungary'.

Explanation: The 'White Terror' refers to the period of violent reprisals and purges conducted by counter-revolutionary forces against communists, socialists, and other perceived leftist elements in Hungary between 1919 and 1920.

Explanation: *Magyar Királyság* is the Hungarian name for the Kingdom of Hungary, specifically referring to the state that existed from 1920 to 1946 during the Horthy Regency.

Explanation: The Treaty of Trianon resulted in Hungary losing approximately two-thirds of its pre-war territory and over three million ethnic Hungarians, a far greater proportion than 'less than half'.

Explanation: The Treaty of Trianon transferred significant territories from Hungary to Czechoslovakia (Upper Hungary), Romania (Transylvania), and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia, including Vojvodina).

Explanation: The Treaty of Trianon resulted in the loss of significant agricultural lands and industrial centers, fundamentally altering Hungary's economic structure and increasing its reliance on foreign trade.

Explanation: The Treaty of Trianon, signed in 1920, imposed severe territorial concessions on Hungary, drastically reducing its size and population.

Explanation: The Treaty of Trianon assigned the region of Transylvania, historically part of Hungary, to Romania.

Explanation: The Treaty of Trianon resulted in Hungary losing crucial agricultural and industrial regions, which severely impacted its economy and led to increased dependence on exports for sustenance.

Explanation: The Treaty of Trianon resulted in Hungary ceding substantial territories, most notably Transylvania to Romania and Upper Hungary (Slovakia) to Czechoslovakia.

Explanation: Hungary's primary foreign policy objective during the Horthy era was revisionism, actively seeking to overturn the territorial losses imposed by the Treaty of Trianon, not to maintain the status quo.

Explanation: In the late 1930s, Hungary increasingly aligned itself with Germany and Italy, powers that supported revision of the post-WWI treaties, rather than France and Great Britain, who were more inclined to uphold the existing order.

Explanation: Through diplomatic arbitration facilitated by Germany and Italy, known as the First and Second Vienna Awards, Hungary regained territories previously lost to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

Explanation: The Second Vienna Award in 1940 granted Hungary Northern Transylvania from Romania, not Upper Hungary (Slovakia). Upper Hungary had been assigned to Czechoslovakia by the Treaty of Trianon.

Explanation: A central tenet of István Bethlen's premiership was the pursuit of revising the Treaty of Trianon, aiming to regain territories lost after World War I through diplomatic means.

Explanation: Following 1938, Hungary's relationship with Nazi Germany intensified, characterized by increasing economic dependence and alignment in foreign policy, culminating in participation in World War II alongside the Axis powers.

Explanation: By 1941, through territorial revisions and participation in the invasion of Yugoslavia, Hungary had expanded its territory significantly, reaching approximately 172,149 km².

Explanation: The primary foreign policy objective of Hungary under Horthy was revisionism, aiming to regain territories lost through the Treaty of Trianon.

Explanation: In the late 1930s, Hungary's foreign policy shifted towards closer alignment with Germany and Italy, seeking their support for revising the Treaty of Trianon.

Explanation: The Second Vienna Award in 1940, arbitrated by Germany and Italy, resulted in Hungary regaining Northern Transylvania from Romania.

Explanation: The First Vienna Award in 1938, arbitrated by Germany and Italy, resulted in Hungary regaining southern parts of Czechoslovakia (Felvidék).

Explanation: István Bethlen's government actively pursued the revision of the Treaty of Trianon, aiming to restore Hungary's pre-war territorial integrity.

Explanation: After 1938, Hungary's political and economic alignment with Nazi Germany grew significantly, leading to increased economic dependence and adherence to Germany's foreign policy objectives.

Explanation: The area of 172,149 km² in 1941 reflected Hungary's territorial gains through the Vienna Awards and its participation in the invasion of Yugoslavia, partially reversing the losses from the Treaty of Trianon.

Explanation: Hungary pursued revision of the Treaty of Trianon primarily by aligning itself with Germany and Italy, powers that sought to overturn the post-World War I international order.

Explanation: Hungary had already joined the Axis powers in November 1940. The declaration of war on the Soviet Union occurred in June 1941, following the German invasion.

Explanation: Germany occupied Hungary in March 1944 (Operation Margarethe) due to concerns about Hungary's potential withdrawal from the war and its attempts to seek an armistice with the Allies, not because it refused to participate in Operation Barbarossa, which had occurred years earlier.

Explanation: Operation Panzerfaust led to Horthy's deposition, but Ferenc Szálasi was installed as Prime Minister and 'Leader of the Nation,' heading a puppet regime. Horthy was not replaced by Szálasi as the 'sole head of state' in a constitutional sense, but rather Szálasi assumed dictatorial powers.

Explanation: During May and June 1944, following the German occupation, Hungarian authorities facilitated the rapid deportation of approximately 437,000 Hungarian Jews to Nazi extermination camps, primarily Auschwitz.

Explanation: The Hungarian Second Army Group suffered catastrophic losses and was virtually annihilated during the Battle of Stalingrad, marking a significant defeat rather than a victory.

Explanation: Hungary supported the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, allowing German troops passage and subsequently annexing territory from the defeated country.

Explanation: While territorial revision was a constant goal, Hungary's declaration of war on the Soviet Union in June 1941 was motivated by fears of Romanian shifts in allegiance and support for Germany's Operation Barbarossa, rather than solely by a direct desire to reclaim Trianon territories from the USSR.

Explanation: Operation Panzerfaust was a German-orchestrated coup that aimed to depose Miklós Horthy and install Ferenc Szálasi, the leader of the Arrow Cross Party, as the head of a pro-Nazi government, not to restore Horthy.

Explanation: Following his installation by the Germans in October 1944, Ferenc Szálasi led the Hungarist regime, which continued to fight alongside the Axis powers until the final collapse of the war.

Explanation: The period between 1944 and 1945 saw Hungary under German occupation initially, followed by the advance of Soviet forces and the establishment of a Soviet-influenced transitional government. It was not solely under Soviet control, nor was German influence entirely absent until the final defeat.

Explanation: Germany occupied Hungary in March 1944 (Operation Margarethe) primarily because Hungary was attempting to negotiate an armistice with the Allied powers, raising concerns about its loyalty to the Axis.

Explanation: Following the German-orchestrated deposition of Miklós Horthy in October 1944, Ferenc Szálasi of the Arrow Cross Party was installed as the 'Leader of the Nation' and Prime Minister.

Explanation: The Hungarian Second Army Group suffered devastating losses during the Battle of Stalingrad, with its forces being virtually annihilated by the Soviet counteroffensive.

Explanation: Hungary supported the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941 by granting passage to German troops and subsequently annexing territories, notably the Bačka region.

Explanation: Hungary declared war on the Soviet Union in June 1941 partly out of concern over potential Romanian realignment and to support Germany's invasion during Operation Barbarossa.

Explanation: Operation Panzerfaust was a German military operation in October 1944 that forcibly removed Regent Miklós Horthy and installed Ferenc Szálasi and the Arrow Cross Party in power.

Explanation: The 'Hungarist state' was a puppet regime established by Nazi Germany after deposing Horthy, led by Ferenc Szálasi of the Arrow Cross Party, which continued the war effort on behalf of the Axis powers.

Explanation: Between 1944 and 1945, Hungary experienced German occupation under the Szálasi regime, followed by the advance of Soviet forces and the establishment of a provisional government heavily influenced by the Soviet Union.

Explanation: The *numerus clausus* law of 1920 was enacted to restrict the admission of minority students, particularly Jewish students, to universities, ostensibly by limiting enrollment based on 'national, racial, and ethnic origin,' though later criteria shifted.

Explanation: While Hungary achieved some economic stabilization and growth during the 1920s, this prosperity was severely disrupted by the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, which had significant negative impacts.

Explanation: In 1927, as part of economic stabilization efforts, the Hungarian currency was reformed, with the pengő replacing the previous korona.

Explanation: István Bethlen's government stabilized the economy primarily through securing substantial foreign loans and introducing a new currency (the pengő), rather than solely through domestic austerity.

Explanation: From the mid-1930s onwards, Hungary's economic ties with Germany grew increasingly significant, leading to greater economic dependence on Germany.

Explanation: While the *numerus clausus* law initially included provisions based on 'national, racial, and ethnic origin,' after 1928, the criteria were officially shifted to focus on social standing and class, although discriminatory practices persisted.

Explanation: The collapse of the Austrian Creditanstalt bank in 1931 was a major event in the European financial crisis and significantly contributed to the exacerbation of the Great Depression's effects on Hungary's economy.

Explanation: In 1941, Roman Catholics formed the largest religious group (55%), followed by Calvinists (19%) and Eastern Orthodox (11.6%). Jews constituted approximately 4.9% of the population.

Explanation: The *numerus clausus* law primarily targeted minority groups, most notably Jewish students, by limiting their university admissions, rather than ethnic Hungarians.

Explanation: The *numerus clausus* law, enacted in 1920, was primarily used to limit the enrollment of Jewish students in Hungarian universities, reflecting prevailing antisemitic sentiments.

Explanation: István Bethlen's government achieved economic stabilization in the 1920s largely through the acquisition of significant foreign loans and the introduction of a new currency, the pengő.

Explanation: In 1927, the Hungarian pengő was introduced as the new national currency, replacing the korona as part of a broader economic stabilization program.

Explanation: István Bethlen's government stabilized Hungary's economy in the 1920s primarily through securing substantial foreign loans and introducing a new currency, the pengő.

Explanation: From the mid-1930s, Hungary's economic ties with Germany strengthened, leading to increased dependence on German markets and trade, particularly as political alignment grew.

Explanation: Following amendments after 1928, the *numerus clausus* law officially shifted its admission criteria from racial origin to social standing and class, although discriminatory practices continued.

Explanation: The failure of the Austrian Creditanstalt bank in 1931 was a significant event that exacerbated the global Great Depression, leading to a collapse of prosperity in Hungary and other European economies.

Explanation: In 1941, individuals identifying as Jewish constituted approximately 4.9% of Hungary's total population.

Explanation: Following the collapse of the Szálasi regime and the end of World War II, Hungary entered a transitional period. A provisional government was formed, and the Second Hungarian Republic was formally proclaimed on February 1, 1946, not immediately in 1945.

Explanation: On February 1, 1946, the Hungarian monarchy was formally abolished, and the Second Hungarian Republic was established, marking a significant shift in the country's political structure.

Explanation: Following World War II, the Hungarian Communist Party, alongside other political factions, was instrumental in the formation and operation of the High National Council, which served as a collective head of state during the transitional period.

Explanation: Following the collapse of the Szálasi regime and the end of the war, Hungary was referred to as the *Magyar Állam* (Hungarian State) under a provisional government before the formal establishment of the Second Hungarian Republic in 1946.

Explanation: On February 1, 1946, the monarchy was formally abolished in Hungary, and the Second Hungarian Republic was established.