Explanation: Contrary to state-sanctioned religious activities, magic in the Greco-Roman context was characteristically performed privately, operating outside the purview of official priesthoods and established cultic structures. Roman authorities often prohibited harmful magical practices, further distinguishing them from public religion.

Explanation: Swatos and Kivisto's definition posits magic as any attempt to control the environment or oneself through means that are either untested or inherently untestable, rather than scientifically proven methods.

Explanation: John Middleton observes that despite the subjective variability in defining magic, there exists a widely shared understanding that it involves intentional acts aimed at producing particular outcomes through means believed to be supernatural or beyond conventional causality.

Explanation: As an independent tradition, magic in the Greco-Roman world primarily sought to grant practitioners knowledge, power, and control over the cosmos. These pursuits often involved secret rituals and manipulations of divine or supernatural forces.

Explanation: The sources consistently characterize Greco-Roman magic as involving supernatural practices performed privately, distinct from and often outside the boundaries of official, state-sanctioned religious cults and temples.

Explanation: Swatos and Kivisto define magic as any effort to control one's environment or self using methods that lack empirical validation or are fundamentally untestable.

Explanation: Robert Parker suggests that a key differentiator lies in social perception, where magic is often subject to negative evaluation, analogous to 'weeds' in contrast to the positively viewed 'flowers' of religion.

Explanation: The Greek Magical Papyri are indeed a crucial collection of primary source materials, offering invaluable insights into the spells, rituals, and magical beliefs prevalent in the Greco-Roman world.

Explanation: The etymological trajectory of 'magos' indicates it originally referred to a Persian priest, particularly a Zoroastrian, before its meaning broadened in the Hellenistic period to include practitioners of esoteric arts and magic.

Explanation: Curse tablets ('tabellae defixionum') were typically inscribed on lead sheets and buried in specific locations such as tombs or execution sites, intended to invoke supernatural forces against a victim, rather than to gain favor with the gods in public spaces.

Explanation: While amulets could be decorative, their primary function was protective. The choice of material, particularly precious stones, was believed to significantly enhance their perceived effectiveness against magical threats or to confer specific benefits.

Explanation: Theurgy aimed at religious purposes and divine contact, while goetia was a more derogatory term for magic perceived as profane or fraudulent. However, the distinction was not always absolute, and 'goetia' could also encompass practices of attraction or summoning.

Explanation: The magician's kit unearthed in Pergamon provides concrete evidence of magical paraphernalia, containing items such as inscribed bronze tables, rings, and polished stones marked with names associated with supernatural powers.

Explanation: The study of Greco-Roman magic relies heavily on primary sources such as the Greek Magical Papyri (collections of spells and rituals), inscribed curse tablets ('tabellae defixionum'), and protective amulets.

Explanation: Initially referring to Persian priests, the term 'magos' broadened in the Hellenistic period due to fascination with figures like Zoroaster, eventually encompassing practitioners of magic and holders of esoteric knowledge.

Explanation: Curse tablets ('tabellae defixionum') were inscribed with imprecations against individuals and were typically buried near tombs, execution sites, or other liminal locations to direct their harmful intent.

Explanation: Amulets served protective functions, and while materials varied, precious stones were often believed to imbue them with enhanced magical efficacy. Their effectiveness was tied to their perceived properties, not merely their decorative value.

Explanation: Theurgy was characterized by its religious orientation and the pursuit of communion with the divine, often through symbolic practices intended to draw down the gods. Goetia, conversely, was often used pejoratively to denote magic perceived as profane, manipulative, or fraudulent.

Explanation: The archaeological find at Pergamon, identified as a magician's kit, contained artifacts such as inscribed bronze tables, rings, and polished stones bearing potent symbols and names.

Explanation: Book X of the *Odyssey*, which recounts Odysseus's encounter with Circe, introduces foundational magical motifs such as the use of a magical wand, the protective properties of the herb 'moly,' and the transmission of magical secrets by a divine intermediary (Hermes).

Explanation: Circe's transformation of Odysseus's companions into swine in the *Odyssey* is explicitly depicted as an act of magic, utilizing her wand and potions, thereby representing a subversion of the natural order through supernatural means.

Explanation: Book X of the *Odyssey*, which narrates the episode involving the sorceress Circe, is frequently cited for its depiction of magical practices, tools, and their effects, contributing significantly to the literary tradition of magic.

Explanation: Circe is depicted as a powerful sorceress who employs magic to transform Odysseus's companions into swine, symbolizing older, perhaps chthonic, powers that challenge or defy the prevailing natural order established by the Olympian gods.

Explanation: Plato and Pliny the Elder, among other classical authors, often expressed skepticism or outright negativity towards practitioners of magic, frequently portraying them as charlatans or associated with malevolent practices, rather than divine wisdom.

Explanation: In 'Laws,' Plato acknowledged the existence and efficacy of healers, prophets, and sorcerers, recognizing the need for legal regulation. However, he categorized these practitioners as representing a relatively low order of humanity, advising caution rather than excessive fear.

Explanation: Pliny the Elder posited that the gods intended for humans to discover the secrets of nature, including the properties of herbs and roots. He believed this pursuit of knowledge was a pathway for humans to approach the status of the gods.

Explanation: Plutarch defined superstition not as confidence in the gods, but rather as 'fear of the gods.' He associated excessive reliance on omens, taboos, and certain ritualistic practices with this fear, distinguishing it from genuine piety.

Explanation: Writers such as Plato and Pliny the Elder frequently viewed practitioners referred to as 'magoi' with suspicion, often depicting them negatively in their works.

Explanation: Plato, in 'Laws,' acknowledged the existence and efficacy of healers, prophets, and sorcerers but classified them as belonging to a lower stratum of human existence, advising caution rather than excessive fear.

Explanation: Pliny the Elder articulated a view that the gods desired humans to explore and uncover the secrets of nature, including the potent properties of plants and minerals, as a means for human advancement.

Explanation: Plutarch defined superstition as 'fear of the gods,' contrasting it with true piety and associating it with excessive anxiety regarding omens, taboos, and certain ritualistic practices.

Explanation: Conversely to malevolent sorcery, figures like Orpheus and Pythagoras were often lauded in Classical Greece, sometimes described as 'theios aner' (divine men), possessing extraordinary abilities and associated with positive or awe-inspiring powers rather than malevolent magic.

Explanation: Legends surrounding Pythagoras frequently attributed to him extraordinary powers, such as appearing in two cities at once and conversing with animals, marking him as a figure transcending ordinary human limitations.

Explanation: Post-Empedocles, the literary tradition often depicted exceptional individuals as possessing more specialized, rather than broadly encompassing, magical gifts. The trend was towards attributing specific powers, such as healing or prophecy, rather than the wide-ranging abilities seen in earlier figures.

Explanation: The remarkable abilities attributed to figures like Jesus and Apollonius of Tyana—such as performing miracles, healing, or exhibiting prophetic insight—led some contemporary observers to categorize them as magicians or 'divine men' ('theios aner').

Explanation: The term 'theios aner' (divine man) was generally used to describe figures perceived as possessing divine qualities or extraordinary, often benevolent, powers, distinguishing them from practitioners of low or fraudulent magic ('goetia').

Explanation: Figures such as Orpheus, Pythagoras, and Empedocles were often depicted in Classical Greek tradition not as malevolent sorcerers, but as 'divine men' ('theios aner') possessing remarkable, often beneficial, abilities that set them apart.

Explanation: Legends concerning Pythagoras included claims of his ability to be present in two different cities at the same time and to communicate with animals, attributes suggestive of supernatural powers.

Explanation: After Empedocles, the literary tradition tended to attribute more specialized magical gifts to individuals, moving away from the broad spectrum of powers associated with earlier figures like Pythagoras or Orpheus.

Explanation: The extraordinary deeds attributed to figures like Jesus and Apollonius of Tyana led some observers to classify them as magicians or 'divine men,' reflecting a cultural lens through which exceptional abilities were often interpreted.

Explanation: The Hellenistic era was characterized by significant syncretism, wherein magical traditions from various cultures, including Greek, Egyptian, and Jewish, frequently blended and influenced one another, as evidenced in texts like the Greek Magical Papyri.

Explanation: The prevalence of Jewish divine names like 'Iao' and 'Adonai' in Hellenistic magical texts likely stemmed from an external perception of Judaism as a tradition possessing secret knowledge related to a hidden deity, contributing to the syncretic nature of the period's magic.

Explanation: On the contrary, the Greek Magical Papyri demonstrate extensive cultural blending, integrating elements from Greek, Egyptian, and other traditions, reflecting the syncretic nature of Hellenistic magic.

Explanation: The Hellenistic era witnessed a pronounced syncretism in magic, marked by the fusion and mutual influence of diverse cultural traditions, including Greek, Egyptian, and Jewish magical practices.

Explanation: The integration of Jewish divine names like 'Iao' into Hellenistic magic likely arose from an external perception of Judaism as a tradition possessing secret knowledge related to a hidden deity, contributing to the era's syncretic magical landscape.

Explanation: The practice of book burnings, exemplified by the event in Ephesus mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, and Emperor Augustus's decree to destroy magical scrolls, demonstrates a deliberate effort by authorities to suppress magical literature and practices.

Explanation: The early Christian Church actively sought to differentiate its practices from those associated with magic. Instances like the rejection of Simon Magus's attempt to purchase spiritual authority and the admonition for Ephesians to burn their magical texts underscore this separation.

Explanation: Roman authorities typically prohibited harmful magical practices, such as spells intended to cause damage or misfortune. While some forms of magic might have been tolerated if private, antagonistic spells were generally subject to legal prohibition and suppression.

Explanation: Apuleius's 'Apologia,' his defense against charges of practicing magic, illustrates the opposite: accusations of magic were sufficiently common and carried significant legal and social weight, making them difficult to dismiss and potentially dangerous for the accused, even for philosophers.

Explanation: Historical records indicate that Emperor Augustus, in 13 BCE, ordered the burning of approximately 2,000 scrolls associated with magic, reflecting official efforts to control or suppress such practices.

Explanation: In 13 BCE, Emperor Augustus issued an edict ordering the destruction of approximately 2,000 scrolls deemed to be related to magic, indicating official efforts to curb its influence.

Explanation: The early Christian Church actively demarcated its own practices from those of magic users, emphasizing theological purity and rejecting syncretic or manipulative rituals associated with magic.

Explanation: Roman legal frameworks and authorities typically prohibited harmful magical practices, such as spells intended to cause misfortune or damage. While enforcement varied, suppression of such practices was a consistent policy.

Explanation: Apuleius's defense demonstrates that accusations of practicing magic were a serious legal concern in the Roman Empire, capable of being leveled even against educated individuals, highlighting the negative social stigma attached to such practices.