Primary Sources and Early Phonological Analysis
Middle Chinese, a historical stage of the Chinese language, was formerly known as Ancient Chinese and is primarily documented in the *Qieyun* rime dictionary, first published in 601 AD.
Explanation: The source material confirms that Middle Chinese was indeed formerly known as Ancient Chinese and that the *Qieyun* rime dictionary, published in 601 AD, is its primary documentary source.
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The *fanqie* method, used in early Chinese dictionaries, involved using three characters to describe the pronunciation of a fourth, making it highly efficient.
Explanation: The *fanqie* method used *two* characters to describe the pronunciation of a third, and while an improvement, it was considered awkward in practical application, not 'highly efficient'.
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Rime tables, such as the mid-12th-century *Yunjing*, provided a more sophisticated and convenient analysis of *Qieyun* phonology compared to the *fanqie* method.
Explanation: Rime tables, including the *Yunjing*, offered a more structured and convenient analytical framework for *Qieyun* phonology, surpassing the indirect *fanqie* method.
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The most important original sources for reconstructing Middle Chinese phonology are the *Qieyun* rime dictionary and its subsequent revisions.
Explanation: The *Qieyun* rime dictionary and its revisions are indeed considered the most important original sources for Middle Chinese phonological reconstruction.
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The six earlier dictionaries that the *Qieyun* attempted to merge are still extant and serve as important supplementary sources for Middle Chinese study.
Explanation: The six earlier dictionaries that the *Qieyun* aimed to merge were eclipsed by its success and are no longer extant.
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The *Guangyun*, an expanded edition of the *Qieyun* from the Song dynasty (1008), was crucial for early 20th-century scholars because only fragments of the original *Qieyun* were known at that time.
Explanation: The *Guangyun* was indeed a critical resource for early 20th-century scholars due to the limited availability of the original *Qieyun*.
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A complete copy of Wang Renxu's 706 edition of the *Qieyun* was discovered in the caves of Dunhuang in 1947.
Explanation: A complete copy of Wang Renxu's 706 edition of the *Qieyun* was indeed found in 1947, originating from the Palace Library, with significant sections of a version discovered in Dunhuang.
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The *fanqie* method was an innovation of the *Qieyun* that allowed the pronunciation of all characters to be described exactly by using a single character.
Explanation: The *fanqie* method used *two* characters to describe the pronunciation of a third, not a single character.
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The *Qieyun* classified homonyms under 193 rhyme classes, each of which was placed within one of the three tones.
Explanation: The *Qieyun* classified homonyms under 193 rhyme classes, each placed within one of the *four* tones, not three.
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The *Yunjing*, the oldest of the rime tables, was created around 1150 AD, centuries after the *Qieyun* itself.
Explanation: The *Yunjing* is indeed the oldest rime table, dating to around 1150 AD, significantly later than the *Qieyun*.
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Each *Yunjing* table has 16 columns representing initial consonants and 23 rows representing tones.
Explanation: Each *Yunjing* table has 23 columns representing initial consonants and 16 rows, with groups of 4 rows for each of the four tones.
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In the *Yunjing*, initial consonants are classified only by their place of articulation, not by their phonation.
Explanation: In the *Yunjing*, initial consonants are classified by both their place of articulation and their phonation (e.g., voiceless, voiced, nasal).
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The image in the infobox displays a section of the *Guangyun* dictionary.
Explanation: The image in the infobox displays a section of the *Tangyun*, an 8th-century edition of the *Qieyun* dictionary.
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By what other name was Middle Chinese formerly known?
Explanation: Middle Chinese was formerly known as Ancient Chinese, as documented in the *Qieyun* rime dictionary.
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When was the first edition of the *Qieyun* rime dictionary published?
Explanation: The first edition of the *Qieyun* rime dictionary was published in 601 AD.
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What was the practical limitation of the *fanqie* method for indicating pronunciation in early Chinese dictionaries?
Answer: It proved awkward in practical application due to its indirect nature.
Explanation: The *fanqie* method, while an improvement, was considered awkward in practical application due to its indirect use of two characters to describe a third.
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Which of the following Song dynasty rime tables is commonly used in conjunction with the *Qieyun* for phonological reconstruction?
Explanation: The *Yunjing* is one of the Song dynasty rime tables frequently used alongside the *Qieyun* for phonological reconstruction.
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What was the primary concern of Chinese scholars during the Northern and Southern dynasties period that led to the creation of rime dictionaries?
Answer: The correct recitation of the classics.
Explanation: Rime dictionaries were created primarily due to scholars' concern for the correct recitation of the classics during the Northern and Southern dynasties period.
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What happened to the six earlier dictionaries that the *Qieyun* attempted to merge?
Answer: They were eclipsed by its success and are no longer extant.
Explanation: The six earlier dictionaries were superseded by the *Qieyun*'s success and are no longer extant.
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Why was the *Guangyun* a crucial resource for scholars like Bernhard Karlgren in the early 20th century?
Answer: Only fragments of the original *Qieyun* were known at that time.
Explanation: The *Guangyun* was crucial because only fragments of the original *Qieyun* were available to early 20th-century scholars.
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When was a complete copy of Wang Renxu's 706 edition of the *Qieyun* found?
Explanation: A complete copy of Wang Renxu's 706 edition of the *Qieyun* was discovered in 1947.
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What was the innovation of the *fanqie* method in rhyme dictionaries?
Answer: It allowed pronunciation to be described exactly using two other characters.
Explanation: The *fanqie* method innovated by using two characters to precisely describe the pronunciation of a third.
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How many rhyme classes did the *Qieyun* classify homonyms under?
Explanation: The *Qieyun* classified homonyms under 193 rhyme classes.
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Approximately when was the *Yunjing*, the oldest of the rime tables, created?
Explanation: The *Yunjing*, the oldest rime table, was created around 1150 AD.
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How many columns does each *Yunjing* table have, representing initial consonants?
Explanation: Each *Yunjing* table has 23 columns, each representing an initial consonant.
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Reconstruction Methodologies and Comparative Evidence
Bernhard Karlgren was the first linguist to attempt a reconstruction of the actual sounds of Middle Chinese by comparing its categories with modern Chinese varieties and Sino-Xenic pronunciations.
Explanation: Bernhard Karlgren is recognized as the pioneer in systematically reconstructing Middle Chinese sounds through comparative analysis of modern Chinese dialects and Sino-Xenic pronunciations.
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Modern Chinese varieties and Sino-Xenic pronunciations are considered the most accurate and complete sources for reconstructing Early Middle Chinese.
Explanation: While useful, modern Chinese varieties and Sino-Xenic pronunciations are limited for reconstructing Early Middle Chinese because most descend from a Late Middle Chinese *koiné*, and many phonetic distinctions were lost.
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Transcription evidence offers direct evidence for Middle Chinese phonology because the pronunciation of the foreign languages borrowed from (like Sanskrit) is known in great detail.
Explanation: Transcription evidence is valuable because the pronunciation of the source foreign languages, such as Sanskrit, is well-documented, offering direct insights into Middle Chinese phonology.
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The transcription of Sanskrit nasals into Chinese characters remained consistent throughout the Tang dynasty, always using Chinese nasal initials.
Explanation: The transcription evolved; later in the Tang dynasty, Chinese nasal initials were used for Sanskrit unaspirated voiced initials, suggesting a change in some northwestern Chinese dialects where nasal initials became prenasalized stops.
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Reconstructions of Middle Chinese phonology by different modern linguists show significant and controversial differences primarily in consonants, not vowels.
Explanation: Reconstructions show minor and uncontroversial differences in consonants, but more significant and controversial differences in vowels.
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Which of the following was NOT a method employed by Bernhard Karlgren to reconstruct the actual sounds of Middle Chinese?
Answer: Directly interviewing native speakers of Middle Chinese.
Explanation: Bernhard Karlgren's methods included comparative analysis of modern Chinese varieties and Sino-Xenic pronunciations, but direct interviews with Middle Chinese speakers would have been impossible.
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What unique advantage does transcription evidence offer in reconstructing Middle Chinese phonology?
Answer: It provides direct evidence from foreign languages whose pronunciation is known in great detail.
Explanation: Transcription evidence is uniquely valuable because the pronunciation of the foreign source languages is known in great detail, offering direct phonetic insights.
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What did the evolution of Sanskrit nasal transcription into Chinese characters suggest about some northwestern Chinese dialects in the early Tang dynasty?
Answer: Nasal initials had evolved into prenasalized stops.
Explanation: The changing transcription patterns suggested that in some northwestern Chinese dialects, nasal initials had evolved into prenasalized stops.
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Middle Chinese Consonants and Syllable Structure
The traditional analysis of the Chinese syllable, derived from the *fanqie* method, divides it into an initial consonant and a final.
Explanation: The *fanqie* method indeed led to the traditional bipartite division of the Chinese syllable into an initial and a final.
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Early Middle Chinese (EMC) had only two types of stops: voiced and voiceless.
Explanation: Early Middle Chinese (EMC) had three types of stops: voiced, voiceless, and voiceless aspirated.
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The complex system of Early Middle Chinese consonants is thought to have arisen from a combination of Old Chinese obstruents with a following /r/ and/or /j/.
Explanation: The more complex EMC consonant system is indeed theorized to have developed from Old Chinese obstruents combined with /r/ and/or /j/.
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Between Early Middle Chinese and Late Middle Chinese, palatal sibilants remained distinct from retroflex sibilants.
Explanation: Between Early Middle Chinese and Late Middle Chinese, palatal sibilants *merged* with retroflex sibilants.
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Middle Chinese syllables frequently featured complex initial and final consonant clusters.
Explanation: Middle Chinese syllables did *not* feature complex initial and final consonant clusters, unlike Old Chinese. Its structure was simpler, comprising an initial, glide, vowel, and final consonant.
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What is the traditional analysis of the Chinese syllable, derived from the *fanqie* method?
Answer: An initial consonant and a final.
Explanation: The traditional analysis of the Chinese syllable, stemming from the *fanqie* method, divides it into an initial consonant and a final.
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Middle Chinese Tones and Tonogenesis
The four tones of Middle Chinese were first systematically described by Bernhard Karlgren in the 20th century.
Explanation: The four tones of Middle Chinese were first listed by Shen Yue around 500 AD, centuries before Karlgren's work.
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The 'entering' tone in Middle Chinese occurred in syllables ending with nasal consonants.
Explanation: The 'entering' tone in Middle Chinese occurred in syllables ending with *stop* consonants, while the other three tones occurred in open syllables or those ending with nasal consonants.
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The comparative method has been highly successful in establishing the precise pitch contours of Middle Chinese tones.
Explanation: Linguists have struggled to establish precise pitch contours using the comparative method due to the wide variation in modern reflexes of Middle Chinese tones.
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Bernhard Karlgren interpreted the Middle Chinese rising tone as a falling pitch contour.
Explanation: Bernhard Karlgren interpreted the rising tone as a *rising* pitch contour, and the departing tone as a falling pitch contour.
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According to Pan and Zhang's reconstruction, the Middle Chinese level tone had a high falling pitch contour (51).
Explanation: According to Pan and Zhang, the Middle Chinese level tone was mid (33), while the departing tone had a high falling pitch contour (51).
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The Middle Chinese tone system shows a striking similarity to those of its neighbors in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, suggesting a shared areal linguistic development.
Explanation: Despite not being genetically related, the Middle Chinese tone system exhibits notable similarities with those in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, indicative of areal linguistic influence.
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André-Georges Haudricourt argued that tones in Chinese and Vietnamese developed independently of any preceding consonant features.
Explanation: André-Georges Haudricourt argued that tones in Vietnamese, and by extension in Chinese, developed *from* preceding consonants, a process known as tonogenesis.
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The Middle Chinese tone split resulted in each tone dividing into 'upper' and 'lower' registers, primarily conditioned by the following vowel.
Explanation: The tone split was primarily conditioned by the *voicing of initial consonants*, not the following vowel.
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Who first listed the four tones of Middle Chinese?
Explanation: Shen Yue is credited with first listing the four tones of Middle Chinese around 500 AD.
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Which Middle Chinese tone occurred in syllables ending in stop consonants?
Explanation: The 'entering' tone in Middle Chinese was characteristic of syllables ending in stop consonants.
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Why have linguists struggled to establish the probable Middle Chinese pitch contours using the comparative method?
Answer: The pitch contours of modern reflexes of the four Middle Chinese tones vary widely.
Explanation: The wide variation in modern reflexes of Middle Chinese tones makes it difficult to reconstruct precise pitch contours using the comparative method.
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According to Pan and Zhang's reconstruction, what was the approximate pitch contour for the Middle Chinese departing tone?
Answer: High falling (51)
Explanation: Pan and Zhang's reconstruction assigns a high falling pitch contour (51) to the Middle Chinese departing tone.
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What did the early 9th-century *Yuanhe Yunpu* describe the Middle Chinese level tone as?
Explanation: The *Yuanhe Yunpu* described the Middle Chinese level tone as 'sad and stable'.
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What did the Japanese monk Annen state about the Middle Chinese rising tone in 880 AD?
Answer: Straight and high
Explanation: The Japanese monk Annen, citing an early 8th-century account, described the Middle Chinese rising tone as 'straight and high'.
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What was André-Georges Haudricourt's significant contribution to the understanding of tonogenesis in Chinese and Southeast Asian languages?
Answer: He demonstrated that tones developed from preceding consonants.
Explanation: Haudricourt's key contribution was demonstrating that tones developed from preceding consonants, a process known as tonogenesis.
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What conditioned the phonemic split of Middle Chinese tone categories around the end of the first millennium AD?
Answer: The voicing of initial consonants.
Explanation: The phonemic tone split was conditioned by the voicing of initial consonants, leading to 'upper' and 'lower' registers.
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Historical Linguistic Evolution and Dialectology
The *Qieyun* system is considered important for the reconstruction of Old Chinese phonology, which developed after Middle Chinese.
Explanation: The *Qieyun* system is important for reconstructing Old Chinese phonology, but Old Chinese *predates* Middle Chinese by over a millennium, it did not develop after it.
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All modern Chinese varieties, including Min varieties, are largely understood as divergent developments stemming from Middle Chinese.
Explanation: Min varieties are an exception; they are understood to have developed independently from Eastern Han Chinese, not directly from Middle Chinese.
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The study of Middle Chinese is primarily useful for understanding modern Chinese literature, not classical poetry.
Explanation: The study of Middle Chinese is particularly beneficial for understanding Classical Chinese poetry, especially Tang poetry, due to its insights into rhyme and tone patterns.
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The composite nature of the *Qieyun* system is seen as a limitation for reconstructing earlier forms of Chinese, as it lacks a single, consistent source.
Explanation: Linguists argue that the *Qieyun* system's composite nature *enhances* its value for reconstructing earlier forms of Chinese because a cross-dialectal description preserves more historical information.
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The voicing distinction of Middle Chinese initials is retained in most modern Chinese dialects, including Mandarin.
Explanation: The voicing distinction of Middle Chinese initials is retained only in modern Wu and Old Xiang dialects, having disappeared from most other varieties, including Mandarin.
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Most Mandarin dialects retained all eight tonal categories resulting from the tone split, similar to Cantonese.
Explanation: Most Mandarin dialects merged categories and lost final stop consonants, resulting in *fewer* tonal distinctions than Cantonese, which maintained up to nine categories.
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Old Chinese had a similar syllable structure to Middle Chinese, including the presence of tones.
Explanation: Old Chinese had a significantly different structure, lacking tones and featuring many initial and final consonant clusters, unlike Middle Chinese.
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The transition from Middle Chinese to modern varieties involved an increase in the number of consonants and vowels.
Explanation: The transition involved a *reduction* in the number of consonants and vowels, accompanied by an increase in the number of tones.
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The decrease in possible syllables in modern Chinese has led to a greater reliance on monosyllabic words.
Explanation: The decrease in possible syllables has led to a *proliferation of two-syllable compound words*, which have replaced former monosyllabic words.
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Grammatical analysis of Middle Chinese literature primarily focuses on its complex derivational morphology.
Explanation: Due to the *lack* of significant morphological development, grammatical analysis focuses on the nature and meanings of individual words and syntactic rules, not complex derivational morphology.
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Why is the *Qieyun* system considered important for the reconstruction of Old Chinese phonology?
Answer: It contains crucial information for reconstructing Old Chinese phonology, which predates Middle Chinese.
Explanation: The *Qieyun* system is vital for Old Chinese reconstruction because it provides crucial data for a language stage that predates Middle Chinese.
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Which modern Chinese varieties are generally understood to have developed independently from Middle Chinese?
Explanation: Min varieties are considered to have developed independently from Eastern Han Chinese, not directly from Middle Chinese.
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Besides dialectology, what other area of study significantly benefits from the study of Middle Chinese?
Answer: Classical Chinese poetry, particularly Tang poetry
Explanation: The study of Middle Chinese is crucial for understanding Classical Chinese poetry, especially Tang poetry, due to its insights into rhyme and tone patterns.
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What was a consequence of the gradual decrease in the number of possible syllables in modern Chinese, particularly in Standard Mandarin?
Answer: A proliferation of two-syllable compound words.
Explanation: The reduction in possible syllables led to a significant increase in two-syllable compound words to maintain lexical distinction.
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What is the primary focus of grammatical analysis for Middle Chinese literature, given its lack of significant morphological development?
Answer: The nature and meanings of individual words and syntactic rules.
Explanation: Due to minimal morphology, grammatical analysis of Middle Chinese focuses on word meanings and syntactic structures.
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Key Scholars and Evolving Interpretations
Bernhard Karlgren initially believed that the *Qieyun* dictionary documented the speech standard of Luoyang, a major cultural center during the Sui and Tang dynasties.
Explanation: Bernhard Karlgren initially believed the *Qieyun* documented the speech standard of Chang'an, not Luoyang.
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Most scholars now believe the *Qieyun* dictionary records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late Northern and Southern dynasties period, rather than a single spoken dialect.
Explanation: The recovered preface of the *Qieyun* supports the current scholarly consensus that it represents a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions, functioning as a diasystem.
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Linguists sometimes refer to the system of the *Qieyun* as Late Middle Chinese (LMC) and the variant revealed by rime tables as Early Middle Chinese (EMC).
Explanation: Linguists refer to the *Qieyun* system as Early Middle Chinese (EMC) and the variant revealed by rime tables as Late Middle Chinese (LMC), reflecting the chronological sound changes.
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The Cantonese scholar Chen Li was the first to systematically identify the categories of initials and finals represented in the *fanqie* system through his *Qieyun kao* (1842).
Explanation: Chen Li's *Qieyun kao* (1842) is credited with the first systematic identification of *fanqie* initials and finals.
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The authors of the *Yunjing* were able to perfectly reconstruct Early Middle Chinese phonology without any influence from their contemporary Late Middle Chinese dialect.
Explanation: The authors of the *Yunjing* faced challenges in interpreting a system different from their own, and their reconstruction inevitably showed some influence from their contemporary Late Middle Chinese dialect.
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Bernhard Karlgren believed the *Qieyun* categories represented a broad transcription of a generalized northern dialect.
Explanation: Bernhard Karlgren believed the *Qieyun* categories represented a *narrow* transcription of the precise sounds of the Chang'an capital speech standard, not a broad transcription of a generalized northern dialect.
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Edwin Pulleyblank argued that the systems of the *Qieyun* and the rime tables should be reconstructed as two separate but related systems, Early Middle Chinese and Late Middle Chinese.
Explanation: Edwin Pulleyblank indeed proposed reconstructing the *Qieyun* and rime table systems as distinct but related Early Middle Chinese and Late Middle Chinese.
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Most linguists now agree that the *Qieyun* system perfectly describes a single, unified dialect spoken in the capital during the Sui dynasty.
Explanation: Most linguists now believe that no single dialect contained all the distinctions recorded in the *Qieyun* system; rather, it was a compromise reflecting various dialectal features.
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What city's speech standard did Bernhard Karlgren initially believe the *Qieyun* dictionary documented?
Explanation: Bernhard Karlgren initially believed the *Qieyun* documented the speech standard of Chang'an.
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What is the current scholarly consensus on what the *Qieyun* dictionary records?
Answer: A compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions.
Explanation: Current scholarly consensus, supported by the *Qieyun*'s preface, indicates it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions.
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What distinction do linguists sometimes make between the *Qieyun* system and the variant revealed by rime tables?
Answer: Early Middle Chinese (EMC) and Late Middle Chinese (LMC)
Explanation: Linguists distinguish the *Qieyun* system as Early Middle Chinese (EMC) and the rime table variant as Late Middle Chinese (LMC).
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What challenge did the authors of the *Yunjing* face when interpreting *Qieyun* phonology?
Answer: Interpreting a system that differed significantly from their own dialect.
Explanation: The authors of the *Yunjing* struggled to interpret a system (EMC) that was significantly different from their own contemporary dialect (LMC).
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What was Bernhard Karlgren's belief about what the *Qieyun* categories represented?
Answer: A narrow transcription of the precise sounds of the Chang'an capital speech standard.
Explanation: Karlgren believed the *Qieyun* categories represented a *narrow* transcription of the precise sounds of the Chang'an capital speech standard.
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What was Edwin Pulleyblank's argument regarding the reconstruction of the *Qieyun* and rime table systems?
Answer: They should be reconstructed as two separate but related systems: Early Middle Chinese and Late Middle Chinese.
Explanation: Pulleyblank argued for reconstructing the *Qieyun* and rime table systems as distinct Early Middle Chinese and Late Middle Chinese.
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What is the current understanding among linguists regarding whether the *Qieyun* system describes a single dialect?
Answer: No single dialect contained all the distinctions recorded, but each distinction occurred somewhere.
Explanation: The current understanding is that the *Qieyun* system was a diasystem, a compromise reflecting distinctions found across various dialects, not a single unified dialect.
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Who is the individual depicted in the image within the 'Methodology' section?
Answer: Bernhard Karlgren
Explanation: The image in the 'Methodology' section depicts Bernhard Karlgren, a key figure in Middle Chinese reconstruction.
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