Explanation: The comprehensive definition of morality includes the categorization of intentions, decisions, and actions, and serves as a framework for evaluating behavior. Stating it is *solely* the categorization of actions is an incomplete representation.

Explanation: The Latin word 'moralitas' signifies 'manner, character, or proper behavior.' While related to the concept of ethics, it is not a direct translation of the term 'ethics' itself.

Explanation: Immorality is defined as the active opposition to morality, representing a contravention of moral standards, whereas indifference or unawareness is termed amorality.

Explanation: Amorality refers to a state of indifference toward or unawareness of moral standards, distinct from immorality, which signifies a direct contravention of those standards.

Explanation: While 'ethics' and 'morality' are often used interchangeably, 'ethics' can sometimes refer more narrowly to the moral principles of a specific group or tradition, or to a particular approach to practical reasoning.

Explanation: The descriptive sense of morality refers to the observed values and codes of conduct accepted by a society, focusing on what is believed to be right or wrong within that context. Objective right and wrong is the focus of normative morality.

Explanation: Normative morality refers to what is actually right or wrong, potentially existing independently of cultural values. The moral values accepted by a particular culture are typically referred to as descriptive morality.

Explanation: Morality is defined as the categorization of intentions, decisions, and actions into proper/right and improper/wrong, and it serves as a framework for understanding and evaluating behavior.

Explanation: Morality is fundamentally defined as the categorization of intentions, decisions, and actions into proper or right, and improper or wrong, serving as a framework for understanding and evaluating behavior.

Explanation: The term 'morality' originates from the Latin word 'moralitas,' which signifies manner, character, or proper behavior, highlighting its connection to conduct and disposition.

Explanation: In some philosophical contexts, 'ethics' may be used more narrowly to denote the moral principles of a particular group or tradition, or an Aristotelian approach to practical reasoning, distinguishing it from the broader concept of morality.

Explanation: The descriptive sense of morality refers to the observed values, codes of conduct, or social mores accepted by a society, focusing on what is believed to be right or wrong within that context.

Explanation: Amorality is characterized by indifference toward, or unawareness of, moral standards, distinguishing it from immorality (opposition to standards) and morality (adherence to standards).

Explanation: Meta-ethics investigates abstract issues such as moral ontology and epistemology, whereas concrete systems of moral decision-making, like deontology, fall under the domain of normative ethics.

Explanation: Moral realism asserts that moral truths are objective and exist independently of human opinions or cultural norms. Subjectivity is characteristic of moral anti-realism or relativism.

Explanation: Moral relativism posits that moral virtues are right or wrong only within the context of a specific cultural standpoint, meaning they are not objectively right or wrong regardless of context.

Explanation: Normative ethics is concerned with concrete systems of moral decision-making and prescribing how individuals ought to act. Abstract philosophical questions about the nature of morality are the domain of meta-ethics.

Explanation: Moral anti-realism posits that moral statements do not report objective moral facts. Its main positions include error theory, ethical subjectivism, and non-cognitivism.

Explanation: Moral realism asserts that true moral statements accurately report objective moral facts that exist independently of human opinions, beliefs, or cultural norms.

Explanation: Error theory, a form of moral anti-realism, posits that all positive moral claims are false because there are no objective moral facts for them to accurately report.

Explanation: Moral relativism posits that the rightness or wrongness of moral virtues is contingent upon the context of a specific standpoint, such as a cultural community, rather than being universally absolute.

Explanation: The core assertion of moral anti-realism is that moral statements do not accurately describe objective moral facts, encompassing positions like error theory, subjectivism, and non-cognitivism.

Explanation: Morality can be understood as derived from various sources, including philosophy, religion, and culture, or from principles considered universally applicable, not exclusively from religious doctrines or cultural norms.

Explanation: The anthropological perspective suggests that while practical reasoning is necessary for moral agency, it is not sufficient on its own. Emotion and consideration of the environment are also crucial for moral outcomes.

Explanation: Evolutionary biologists propose that in-group/out-group moral distinctions evolved to *enhance* group survival by fostering internal cooperation and potentially leading to external differentiation or hostility.

Explanation: Evolutionary biologists view modern morality as closely tied to sociocultural evolution and evolutionary forces, believing moral behaviors evolved due to survival or reproductive benefits, rather than solely as a product of conscious philosophical reasoning.

Explanation: The concept of reciprocity observed in nature, such as vampire bats sharing resources, is considered relevant for understanding the evolutionary roots of human morality, illustrating how cooperation and mutual benefit can enhance fitness.

Explanation: Bekoff and Pierce argue that morality, defined as a suite of other-regarding behaviors regulating group interactions, is not exclusive to humans and is observed in many social mammals, not solely involving complex abstract reasoning.

Explanation: Research indicates that moral foundations possess significant genetic bases, which contribute to the development and expression of prosocial behavior and moral decision-making.

Explanation: Religion and morality are not synonymous concepts in all philosophical discussions. While they can be related, morality does not inherently depend on religion, and they represent distinct frameworks for action and value.

Explanation: Buddhism determines right and wrong actions by considering the intention of the individual and the specific circumstances, often in relation to merit, rather than primarily based on divine commandments.

Explanation: Barbara Stoler Miller notes that in Hinduism, practical moral judgments are often based on categories of social rank, kinship, and life stages, which can differ from universal, egalitarian ideals.

Explanation: Religious value systems have historically been used to justify actions that contradict contemporary moral standards, such as justifications for massacres, misogyny, or the caste system found in various traditions.

Explanation: The concept of reciprocity in nature, such as animals restraining immediate selfishness for future benefit, is considered relevant for understanding the evolutionary roots of human morality.

Explanation: Evolutionary biologists suggest that in-group/out-group moral distinctions evolved because they enhance group survival by fostering cooperation within the group and potentially leading to differentiation or competition with external groups.

Explanation: Evolutionary biologists view the development of modern morality as intrinsically linked to sociocultural evolution, positing that moral behaviors evolved because they conferred survival or reproductive advantages.

Explanation: The observation of reciprocity in nature, such as vampire bats sharing blood meals, provides insights into the evolutionary origins of human morality by illustrating the benefits of cooperation and mutual support.

Explanation: Bekoff and Pierce define morality in social mammals as a suite of interrelated other-regarding behaviors that regulate group interactions, encompassing empathy, reciprocity, and cooperation.

Explanation: Studies suggest that moral foundations have significant genetic bases, influencing the development and expression of traits related to morality and prosocial behavior, although culture and environment also play crucial roles.

Explanation: In Buddhism, the determination of right and wrong actions primarily involves considering the intention of the individual and the specific circumstances of the action, often in relation to the concept of merit.

Explanation: A 2012 study found that non-religious individuals scored higher on measures of compassion-driven pro-social behavior, while religious individuals were more motivated by moral obligation than compassion in charitable acts.

Explanation: Modern monotheistic religions typically define right and wrong based on the scriptures and the interpretations provided by their religious leaders, establishing a structured moral code.

Explanation: Barbara Stoler Miller notes that in Hinduism, practical decision-making regarding right and wrong is often based on categories of social rank, kinship, and life stages, rather than solely on universal egalitarian ideals.

Explanation: Moral identity theorists propose that moral commitment arises primarily from the development of a self-identity defined by moral purposes, rather than solely from external social pressures.

Explanation: Moral cognition encompasses the cognitive processes involved in moral judgment, decision-making, and action, extending beyond mere emotional responses to include reasoning and evaluation.

Explanation: Neuroscience research links moral decisions to areas such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC) and temporoparietal junction (TPJ), not primarily the cerebellum.

Explanation: The salience network is primarily implicated in the initial detection of morally salient content and modulating other networks, rather than executing moral actions after judgment.

Explanation: The temporoparietal junction (TPJ) is indeed crucial for understanding intentions and beliefs, playing a key role in integrating intentional information into moral evaluations.

Explanation: Jean Decety suggests that the relationship between empathy and morality is complex, neither always opposed nor always complementary, though empathy was a key evolutionary step for social behavior and morality.

Explanation: 'Theory of mind' abilities, which involve attributing mental states like beliefs and intentions to others, are considered significant for moral cognition, enabling understanding of moral situations and judgments.

Explanation: Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC) impairs the consideration of intentions in moral judgments, leading individuals to focus more on outcomes. This suggests the VMPC is crucial for integrating intentional information.

Explanation: Moral identity theorists posit that moral commitment primarily stems from the development of a self-identity characterized by moral purposes, which then motivates individuals to act in accordance with those purposes.

Explanation: Moral cognition encompasses the array of cognitive processes integral to moral judgment, decision-making, and subsequent action, extending beyond mere emotional responses.

Explanation: Neuroscience research indicates that the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (VMPC), involved in valuation, is associated with explicit moral judgments. The Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ) is more linked to intuitive reactions and understanding intentions.

Explanation: The salience network is implicated in the initial detection of morally salient content within a social context, playing a role in modulating other brain networks involved in complex moral reasoning.

Explanation: The temporoparietal junction (TPJ) is crucial for understanding intentions and beliefs, and is activated by intuitive reactions to situations involving implicit moral issues. Disrupting the TPJ can reduce the role of beliefs in moral judgments.

Explanation: Jean Decety posits that the relationship between empathy and morality is complex, not always complementary nor always opposed, though empathy played a crucial evolutionary role in social behavior and morality.

Explanation: Theory of mind abilities are significant in moral cognition as they enable the attribution of mental states, such as beliefs and intentions, to oneself and others, which is crucial for understanding moral situations and making judgments.

Explanation: Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC) can impair the ability to consider intentions in moral judgments, leading to a greater focus on outcomes and hindering the integration of intentional information.

Explanation: Jean Decety posits that empathy was a key evolutionary step for social behavior and morality, highlighting its foundational role in the development of moral systems.

Explanation: The Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ) is crucial for understanding intentions and beliefs, and is activated by intuitive moral reactions to situations involving implicit moral issues.

Explanation: The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC) is primarily associated with integrating emotional valuation into moral judgments and plays a role in considering intentions, particularly when explicit judgments are made.

Explanation: The Golden Rule, which posits reciprocal treatment, is an example of normative ethical philosophy, focusing on principles of moral decision-making rather than the abstract nature of morality.

Explanation: Celia Green's concept of territorial morality is primarily negative and proscriptive, defining boundaries of what one must *not* do to another's territory, rather than being prescriptive about positive actions.

Explanation: Mastroianni and Gilbert's research indicates that the widespread perception of continuous moral decline is an illusion, driven by psychological mechanisms rather than being an objective reality.

Explanation: Jonathan Haidt's Moral Foundations Theory suggests that American liberals tend to prioritize care and fairness more highly, while conservatives place greater emphasis on loyalty, respect, and purity.

Explanation: Noam Chomsky's principle of universality in morality mandates applying the same moral standards to oneself as to others, asserting that failure to do so undermines the credibility of moral discourse.

Explanation: Jonathan Haidt's Moral Foundations Theory identifies five key foundations: care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, and purity/degradation. Loyalty, authority, and purity are indeed among these.

Explanation: The Sentience Institute analyzes societal moral progress using the framework of an expanding moral circle, which posits that societies gradually extend moral consideration to a wider range of beings or groups over time.

Explanation: Celia Green characterizes territorial morality as primarily negative and proscriptive, focusing on defining boundaries of what one must not do to another's territory, aiming for universal rules.

Explanation: Research by Mastroianni and Gilbert indicates that the perception of continuous moral decline is an illusion, largely attributable to psychological mechanisms rather than objective societal deterioration.

Explanation: Jonathan Haidt's Moral Foundations Theory indicates that American conservatives tend to value loyalty, respect, and purity more highly than liberals, who tend to prioritize care and fairness.

Explanation: Noam Chomsky's principle of universality asserts that one must apply the same moral standards to oneself as to others; failing to do so means one cannot be taken seriously in discussions of right and wrong.

Explanation: The concept of 'moral circle expansion,' as analyzed by the Sentience Institute, describes the societal process of gradually extending moral consideration to an increasingly wider range of beings or groups.

Explanation: The five moral foundations identified by Haidt and colleagues are care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, and purity/degradation. Authority/Subversion is one of these.

Explanation: Mastroianni and Gilbert's study found that people across 60 nations perceive a continuous moral decline, yet their evaluations of peers' morality did not decrease over time, suggesting this perception is an illusion driven by psychological factors.

Explanation: The five moral foundations identified by Haidt and colleagues are care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, and purity/degradation. Independence/Dependence is not one of these foundational domains.