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Proto-fascism is defined exclusively as political movements that emerged after the establishment of full-fledged fascism.
Answer: False
Explanation: Proto-fascism denotes ideologies and cultural movements that directly preceded and formed the basis of fascism. It is also applied more broadly to any political movement whose activities facilitate the emergence of fascism.
A common characteristic found in proto-fascist movements was the glorification of violence and the promotion of a single, absolute leader.
Answer: True
Explanation: Proto-fascist movements frequently exhibited characteristics aligned with fascist ideology, including the scapegoating of ethnic or religious minorities, the glorification of violence, and the promotion of the *Führerprinzip*, signifying the principle of absolute leadership for the party and state.
Proto-fascist movements typically exhibited all the characteristics of full-fledged fascism, including totalitarian ambitions.
Answer: False
Explanation: No, proto-fascist movements are typically considered predecessors to fascism and generally did not exhibit all the characteristics of full fascism, often being less radical or lacking totalitarian ambitions.
The term 'para-fascism' is presented in the text as a synonym for proto-fascism.
Answer: False
Explanation: Para-fascism, listed under 'See also,' suggests a related term to proto-fascism, potentially denoting movements that share certain characteristics with fascism but are not fully fascist, or exist alongside or parallel to it.
The *Führerprinzip* represents the idea that a party or state should be led by a single, absolute leader.
Answer: True
Explanation: The *Führerprinzip* signifies the belief that the party and the state should be led by a single individual with absolute power. This principle was frequently promoted by proto-fascist movements.
According to the text, what is the primary definition of proto-fascism?
Answer: Ideologies and movements that directly preceded and formed the basis of fascism.
Explanation: Proto-fascism denotes ideologies and cultural movements that directly preceded and formed the basis of fascism. It is also applied more broadly to any political movement whose activities facilitate the emergence of fascism.
Which of the following is NOT listed as a common characteristic of proto-fascist movements?
Answer: Emphasis on pacifism and diplomacy
Explanation: Proto-fascist movements frequently exhibited characteristics aligned with fascist ideology, including the scapegoating of ethnic or religious minorities, the glorification of violence, and the promotion of the *Führerprinzip*, signifying the principle of absolute leadership for the party and state.
How did proto-fascist movements generally differ from full-fledged fascism?
Answer: They were often less radical and lacked totalitarian ambitions.
Explanation: While proto-fascist movements shared certain characteristics with fascism, they typically did not exhibit all of them, often being less radical or lacking the totalitarian ambitions that characterized later fascist regimes.
What is the primary distinction between proto-fascism and full-fledged fascism, according to the text?
Answer: Proto-fascism typically did not exhibit all characteristics of fascism and was often less radical.
Explanation: While proto-fascist movements shared certain characteristics with fascism, they typically did not exhibit all of them, often being less radical or lacking the totalitarian ambitions that characterized later fascist regimes.
The term 'para-fascism' is presented in the text as:
Answer: A related concept, potentially denoting movements alongside or parallel to fascism.
Explanation: Para-fascism, listed under 'See also,' suggests a related term to proto-fascism, potentially denoting movements that share certain characteristics with fascism but are not fully fascist, or exist alongside or parallel to it.
Giuseppe Mazzini's ideas, such as class collaboration and solidarity, were inherited by Italian fascism.
Answer: True
Explanation: Giuseppe Mazzini exerted a significant influence on Italian fascism, particularly in its nascent stages. Fascism inherited concepts from Mazzini, including fervent irredentism, class collaboration, a pedagogical mission, and a spirit of solidarity. Mussolini himself held Mazzini in high regard, and numerous fascist figures were adherents.
Francesco Crispi is not considered a precursor to Italian fascism by scholars due to his democratic policies.
Answer: False
Explanation: Francesco Crispi is widely regarded by scholars as a precursor to the Italian fascist regime owing to his authoritarian policies, the nationalist character of his governance, his strongman reputation, and the aggressive colonial policy pursued during his tenure. Benito Mussolini also expressed admiration for Crispi.
Georges Sorel's theories primarily focused on pacifism and non-violent political change.
Answer: False
Explanation: Georges Sorel's formulation of an anti-bourgeois cult of violence and myth provided ideological groundwork for subsequent fascist ideologues, particularly through his theories on political myths and the valorization of violence.
The concept of *Blut und Boden* ('blood and soil') originated with Italian proto-fascist thinkers.
Answer: False
Explanation: *Blut und Boden*, translating to 'blood and soil,' is a concept linked to romanticism within the German *Völkisch* movement, regarded as a precursor to Nazi fascism.
Which French thinker's ideas on the cult of violence and political myths influenced proto-fascist ideologues?
Answer: Georges Sorel
Explanation: Georges Sorel's formulation of an anti-bourgeois cult of violence and myth provided ideological groundwork for subsequent fascist ideologues, particularly through his theories on political myths and the valorization of violence.
What concepts did Italian fascism inherit from Giuseppe Mazzini?
Answer: Fervent irredentism, class collaboration, and solidarity
Explanation: Giuseppe Mazzini exerted a significant influence on Italian fascism, particularly in its nascent stages. Fascism inherited concepts from Mazzini, including fervent irredentism, class collaboration, a pedagogical mission, and a spirit of solidarity. Mussolini himself held Mazzini in high regard, and numerous fascist figures were adherents.
Why is Francesco Crispi considered a precursor to the Italian fascist regime?
Answer: His governance was characterized by authoritarian policies and nationalism.
Explanation: Francesco Crispi is widely regarded by scholars as a precursor to the Italian fascist regime owing to his authoritarian policies, the nationalist character of his governance, his strongman reputation, and the aggressive colonial policy pursued during his tenure. Benito Mussolini also expressed admiration for Crispi.
Georges Sorel's ideas influenced proto-fascist ideologues primarily through his theories on:
Answer: Political 'myths' and the celebration of violence
Explanation: Georges Sorel's formulation of an anti-bourgeois cult of violence and myth provided ideological groundwork for subsequent fascist ideologues, particularly through his theories on political myths and the valorization of violence.
What is the *Führerprinzip*?
Answer: The belief in a single leader with absolute power for the party and state
Explanation: The *Führerprinzip* signifies the belief that the party and the state should be led by a single individual with absolute power. This principle was frequently promoted by proto-fascist movements.
Which concept, meaning 'blood and soil,' is linked to the German *Völkisch* movement?
Answer: *Blut und Boden*
Explanation: *Blut und Boden*, translating to 'blood and soil,' is a concept linked to romanticism within the German *Völkisch* movement, regarded as a precursor to Nazi fascism.
The concept of 'class collaboration' was inherited by Italian fascism from which earlier thinker?
Answer: Giuseppe Mazzini
Explanation: Giuseppe Mazzini exerted a significant influence on Italian fascism, particularly in its nascent stages. Fascism inherited concepts from Mazzini, including fervent irredentism, class collaboration, a pedagogical mission, and a spirit of solidarity. Mussolini himself held Mazzini in high regard, and numerous fascist figures were adherents.
Which of the following individuals is NOT explicitly listed as a proto-fascist figure in the source text?
Answer: Karl Marx
Explanation: Historical individuals identified as proto-fascist due to ideological affinities with fascism include Joseph de Maistre, Thomas Carlyle, Paul de Lagarde, Hermann Goedsche, Goldwin Smith, Georges Ernest Boulanger, George Fitzhugh, Georges Vacher de Lapouge, R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz, Charles Maurras, John Ruskin, Ion Dragoumis, Vladimir Purishkevich, D. H. Lawrence, Giuseppe Mazzini, Francesco Crispi, Rudolf Steiner, Georges Sorel, Édouard Drumont, and Maurice Barrès.
The concept of *Führerprinzip* is most closely associated with which aspect of proto-fascist ideology?
Answer: Absolute leadership
Explanation: The *Führerprinzip* signifies the belief that the party and the state should be led by a single individual with absolute power. This principle was frequently promoted by proto-fascist movements.
Gabriele d'Annunzio is identified as a key figure in Italian proto-fascism, notably leading volunteers to occupy Fiume.
Answer: True
Explanation: Gabriele d'Annunzio, a renowned Italian poet and nationalist, exerted considerable influence on Benito Mussolini and the trajectory of Italian fascism. Post-World War I, he led *Arditi* volunteers in occupying Fiume, establishing the Italian Regency of Carnaro, an action widely regarded as a significant proto-fascist undertaking.
The Italian Futurist movement, led by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, rejected nationalism and violence, thus having little influence on proto-fascism.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Italian Futurist movement, under figures such as Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, exhibited key characteristics later associated with Fascism, including radical nationalism and a veneration of violence, destruction, and war, thereby contributing to the ideological foundations of proto-fascism.
The *Völkisch* movement in Germany, emphasizing 'blood and soil,' is considered a precursor to Nazi fascism.
Answer: True
Explanation: The *Völkisch* nationalist movement, originating in late 19th-century Germany, is regarded as a precursor to Nazi fascism. A significant cultural element within *Völkisch* ideology was the romanticism of *Blut und Boden*, translating to 'blood and soil'.
In the Weimar Republic, only the *Freikorps* militias are identified as proto-fascist movements.
Answer: False
Explanation: Post-World War I, proto-fascist movements in the Weimar Republic encompassed the *Freikorps* militias (active against leftists), the *Stahlhelm* (a veteran organization), the German National Association of Commercial Employees (*Deutschnationaler Handlungsgehilfen-Verband*, DHV), and, from 1931, the German National People's Party (*Deutschnationale Volkspartei*, DNVP).
The *Freikorps* in the Weimar Republic were primarily involved in combating right-wing extremist groups.
Answer: False
Explanation: The *Freikorps* militias constituted proto-fascist movements active in the Weimar Republic, primarily combating leftist forces between the German Revolution of 1918 and the Nazi consolidation of power.
The Italian Regency of Carnaro, led by D'Annunzio, is considered a significant proto-fascist action.
Answer: True
Explanation: The Italian Regency of Carnaro, proclaimed by Gabriele D'Annunzio and his *Arditi* volunteers following their occupation of Fiume post-World War I, represents a significant proto-fascist action and political experiment.
Who was Gabriele d'Annunzio and what significant proto-fascist action is he associated with?
Answer: An Italian poet and nationalist who led volunteers to occupy Fiume, establishing the Italian Regency of Carnaro.
Explanation: Gabriele d'Annunzio, a renowned Italian poet and nationalist, exerted considerable influence on Benito Mussolini and the trajectory of Italian fascism. Post-World War I, he led *Arditi* volunteers in occupying Fiume, establishing the Italian Regency of Carnaro, an action widely regarded as a significant proto-fascist undertaking.
Which Italian artistic and cultural movement, known for radical nationalism and a cult of violence, contributed to proto-fascism?
Answer: Italian Futurism
Explanation: The Italian Futurist movement, under figures such as Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, exhibited key characteristics later associated with Fascism, including radical nationalism and a veneration of violence, destruction, and war, thereby contributing to the ideological foundations of proto-fascism.
The German *Völkisch* movement is connected to proto-fascism through its emphasis on:
Answer: Romanticism associated with 'blood and soil' (*Blut und Boden*)
Explanation: The *Völkisch* nationalist movement, originating in late 19th-century Germany, is regarded as a precursor to Nazi fascism. A significant cultural element within *Völkisch* ideology was the romanticism of *Blut und Boden*, translating to 'blood and soil'.
Which of the following groups in the Weimar Republic was identified as proto-fascist?
Answer: The *Stahlhelm* (Veteran Organization)
Explanation: The *Stahlhelm* was a revanchist and authoritarian nationalist World War I veteran organization in the Weimar Republic, identified as a proto-fascist movement of that era.
The *Freikorps* militias in the Weimar Republic primarily engaged in:
Answer: Combating leftist movements
Explanation: The *Freikorps* militias constituted proto-fascist movements active in the Weimar Republic, primarily combating leftist forces between the German Revolution of 1918 and the Nazi consolidation of power.
What does the term *Blut und Boden* translate to and what movement is it associated with?
Answer: 'Blood and Soil'; associated with the German *Völkisch* movement
Explanation: *Blut und Boden*, translating to 'blood and soil,' is a concept linked to romanticism within the German *Völkisch* movement, regarded as a precursor to Nazi fascism.
What was the significance of the Italian Regency of Carnaro?
Answer: It represented a significant proto-fascist action led by D'Annunzio.
Explanation: The Italian Regency of Carnaro, proclaimed by Gabriele D'Annunzio and his *Arditi* volunteers following their occupation of Fiume post-World War I, represents a significant proto-fascist action and political experiment.
The Italian Nationalist Association (ANI) advocated for:
Answer: An authoritarian, corporatist nationalist state
Explanation: The *Associazione Nazionalista Italiana* (ANI) advocated for an authoritarian, corporatist nationalist state, establishing itself as an influential proto-fascist organization.
The *Arditi* were elite soldiers associated with which proto-fascist figure?
Answer: Gabriele d'Annunzio
Explanation: The *Arditi*, elite soldiers, under Gabriele D'Annunzio's leadership, occupied Fiume and proclaimed the Italian Regency of Carnaro, demonstrating a proto-fascist action.
Which of the following is NOT listed as a proto-fascist movement or organization in the Weimar Republic?
Answer: Weimar Constitution Committee
Explanation: Post-World War I, proto-fascist movements in the Weimar Republic encompassed the *Freikorps* militias (active against leftists), the *Stahlhelm* (a veteran organization), the German National Association of Commercial Employees (*Deutschnationaler Handlungsgehilfen-Verband*, DHV), and, from 1931, the German National People's Party (*Deutschnationale Volkspartei*, DNVP).
What was the role of the Italian Nationalist Association (ANI)?
Answer: Advocating for an authoritarian, corporatist nationalist state.
Explanation: The *Associazione Nazionalista Italiana* (ANI) advocated for an authoritarian, corporatist nationalist state, establishing itself as an influential proto-fascist organization.
How did the Italian Futurist movement contribute to proto-fascism?
Answer: By embracing radical nationalism and the cult of violence.
Explanation: The Italian Futurist movement, under figures such as Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, exhibited key characteristics later associated with Fascism, including radical nationalism and a veneration of violence, destruction, and war, thereby contributing to the ideological foundations of proto-fascism.
French proto-fascism originated from late-19th-century socialist movements.
Answer: False
Explanation: French proto-fascism emerged from the nationalist, xenophobic, and anti-liberal currents prevalent during the late 19th-century *Fin de siècle*, prefiguring the interwar fascist leagues.
The Dreyfus affair in France weakened antisemitic forces and had no impact on proto-fascist movements.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Dreyfus affair significantly galvanized antisemitic and anti-parliamentary forces in France, furnishing rhetoric and organizational models subsequently adopted by far-right and proto-fascist movements.
Georges Sorel's ideas, particularly his celebration of violence and myth, influenced French proto-fascist thinkers.
Answer: True
Explanation: Influential thinkers included Georges Sorel, known for his anti-bourgeois cult of violence and myth, and Charles Maurras, whose *Action Française* synthesized integral nationalism, monarchism, and hostility towards the Republic. Contributing movements also encompassed Boulangism, the Cercle Proudhon, and revolutionary syndicalism.
Georges Valois was a key figure in the French *Action Française* movement before founding the Faisceau party.
Answer: True
Explanation: Georges Valois, characterized as a French national syndicalist who later identified as a French fascist, is depicted. His association with France's first official fascist party, Le Faisceau, illustrates the evolution of fascism from earlier movements.
The Black Hundreds movement in the Russian Empire is considered an example of proto-fascism.
Answer: True
Explanation: Within the Russian Empire, proto-fascism was represented by the Black Hundreds movement and its affiliated organizations, such as the Union of the Russian People (*Soyuz russkogo naroda*).
Bertrand Russell labeled D. H. Lawrence a 'proto-German fascist' because Lawrence rejected all forms of nationalism.
Answer: False
Explanation: Bertrand Russell characterized D. H. Lawrence as a 'proto-German fascist.' This description distinguished Lawrence's focus on individual alienation and reconnection via ancestral 'blood and soil' identity—an evolution of the German *Völkisch* movement—from the totalitarian uniformity of fascism.
Édouard Drumont founded the Antisemitic League of France and contributed to French proto-fascism through his writings.
Answer: True
Explanation: Édouard Drumont, a prominent French antisemitic and nationalist author, synthesized racial, economic, and religious antisemitism. As a leading anti-Dreyfusard figure, he founded the Antisemitic League of France in 1899, making a significant contribution to the intellectual milieu of French proto-fascism.
Maurice Barrès promoted an individualistic approach to nationalism.
Answer: False
Explanation: Maurice Barrès, a notable French nationalist author and prominent anti-Dreyfusard, was an anti-liberal and anti-individualist figure. He popularized the term *nationalisme*, advocating for an organic conception of nationalism and promoting mass emotional politics, aligning with proto-fascist tenets.
The term 'Fin de siècle' in relation to French proto-fascism refers to the early 20th-century period.
Answer: False
Explanation: The term 'Fin de siècle' denotes the late-19th-century period in France, characterized by nationalist, xenophobic, and anti-liberal currents that established the foundation for later interwar fascist leagues and proto-fascist movements.
French proto-fascism emerged from which currents in the late 19th century?
Answer: Nationalist, xenophobic, and anti-liberal currents
Explanation: French proto-fascism emerged from the nationalist, xenophobic, and anti-liberal currents prevalent during the late 19th-century *Fin de siècle*, prefiguring the interwar fascist leagues.
What historical event significantly galvanized antisemitic and anti-parliamentary forces in France, influencing proto-fascist movements?
Answer: The Dreyfus affair
Explanation: The Dreyfus affair significantly galvanized antisemitic and anti-parliamentary forces in France, furnishing rhetoric and organizational models subsequently adopted by far-right and proto-fascist movements.
Georges Valois was a French national syndicalist associated with which early fascist party?
Answer: Le Faisceau
Explanation: Georges Valois, characterized as a French national syndicalist who later identified as a French fascist, is depicted. His association with France's first official fascist party, Le Faisceau, illustrates the evolution of fascism from earlier movements.
What movement in the Russian Empire is identified as representing proto-fascism?
Answer: The Black Hundreds
Explanation: Within the Russian Empire, proto-fascism was represented by the Black Hundreds movement and its affiliated organizations, such as the Union of the Russian People (*Soyuz russkogo naroda*).
Bertrand Russell's characterization of D. H. Lawrence as a 'proto-German fascist' was based on Lawrence's focus on:
Answer: Individual alienation and reconnection via 'blood and soil' identity
Explanation: Bertrand Russell's characterization stemmed from Lawrence's struggle with individual alienation and his search for reconnection through a shared identity rooted in ancestral blood and soil, reflecting an evolution of the German *Völkisch* movement.
Édouard Drumont significantly contributed to French proto-fascism by:
Answer: Synthesizing antisemitism and founding the Antisemitic League of France
Explanation: Édouard Drumont, a prominent French antisemitic and nationalist author, synthesized racial, economic, and religious antisemitism. As a leading anti-Dreyfusard figure, he founded the Antisemitic League of France in 1899, making a significant contribution to the intellectual milieu of French proto-fascism.
Maurice Barrès promoted which concept of nationalism, aligning with proto-fascist thought?
Answer: An organic and emotionally driven nationalism
Explanation: Maurice Barrès, a notable French nationalist author and prominent anti-Dreyfusard, was an anti-liberal and anti-individualist figure. He popularized the term *nationalisme*, advocating for an organic conception of nationalism and promoting mass emotional politics, aligning with proto-fascist tenets.
The 6 February 1934 crisis in France is mentioned as a development stemming from:
Answer: Earlier proto-fascist ideological foundations
Explanation: The 6 February 1934 crisis in France is cited as an event influenced by earlier proto-fascist movements and leagues.
The term 'Fin de siècle' relates to French proto-fascism as:
Answer: The late-19th century period characterized by nationalist and xenophobic currents.
Explanation: The term 'Fin de siècle' denotes the late-19th-century period in France, characterized by nationalist, xenophobic, and anti-liberal currents that established the foundation for later interwar fascist leagues and proto-fascist movements.
Which of the following individuals is listed as a proto-fascist figure?
Answer: Charles Maurras
Explanation: Historical individuals identified as proto-fascist due to ideological affinities with fascism include Joseph de Maistre, Thomas Carlyle, Paul de Lagarde, Hermann Goedsche, Goldwin Smith, Georges Ernest Boulanger, George Fitzhugh, Georges Vacher de Lapouge, R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz, Charles Maurras, John Ruskin, Ion Dragoumis, Vladimir Purishkevich, D. H. Lawrence, Giuseppe Mazzini, Francesco Crispi, Rudolf Steiner, Georges Sorel, Édouard Drumont, and Maurice Barrès.
What aspect of D. H. Lawrence's writing led Bertrand Russell to label him a 'proto-German fascist'?
Answer: His focus on ancestral 'blood and soil' identity
Explanation: Bertrand Russell's characterization stemmed from Lawrence's struggle with individual alienation and his search for reconnection through a shared identity rooted in ancestral blood and soil, reflecting an evolution of the German *Völkisch* movement.
What role did the Dreyfus affair play in French proto-fascism?
Answer: It galvanized antisemitic and anti-parliamentary forces, providing models for the far-right.
Explanation: The Dreyfus affair significantly galvanized antisemitic and anti-parliamentary forces in France, furnishing rhetoric and organizational models subsequently adopted by far-right and proto-fascist movements.
The Finnish Civil War is seen as having no connection to the development of proto-fascism in Finland.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Finnish Civil War provided a context for violent struggle, with subsequent reprisals and purges offering opportunities to attempt societal transformation through violence. Finnish proto-fascists were typically affiliated with the anti-communist White Guard.
Martti Pihkala, an advocate of eugenics and an ideologue of the White Guard, is considered an example of Finnish proto-fascism.
Answer: True
Explanation: Martti Pihkala (1882–1966), an ideologue of the White Guard and proponent of eugenics, is considered a distinct example of proto-fascism in Finland. The irredentist Academic Karelia Society has also been characterized as proto-fascist by researcher Roger Griffin.
Historians describe 'Spanish fascism' as a unified entity that developed independently of any proto-fascist influences.
Answer: False
Explanation: Historians Paul Preston and Julián Casanova describe 'Spanish fascism' as emerging from the unification of right-wing groups, parties, and military rebels constituting the Nationalist faction in the Spanish Civil War. They observe that the Spanish anti-republican right shared a political culture analogous to Italian proto-fascism and the German *Völkisch* movement.
The Spanish group CEDA, known for its nationalist and authoritarian stance, shared a political culture distinct from proto-fascism.
Answer: False
Explanation: Groups including the cultural association *Acción Española*, the nationalist authoritarian corporatist party CEDA, the organization *Spanish Renovation*, and the Carlist *Requetés* are noted for sharing a political culture akin to Italian proto-fascism and the German *Völkisch* movement.
Historical elements like the Jim Crow laws and nativist hostility in the United States are linked to the roots of proto-fascism.
Answer: True
Explanation: Proto-fascism in the United States has roots in 19th-century practices such as slavery in the Antebellum South and the Confederacy, followed by the implementation of Jim Crow laws. The ascendancy of eugenicist discourse and heightened nativist and xenophobic hostility towards immigrants also contributed.
The Ku Klux Klan in the early 20th century is classified by historians as a fascist organization in the United States.
Answer: True
Explanation: During the early 20th century, the Ku Klux Klan is cited as a prominent example of a group that contemporary historians classify as a fascist organization within the United States.
In Finland, proto-fascist movements often involved members of which group during the Civil War context?
Answer: The White Guard
Explanation: The Finnish Civil War provided a context for violent struggle, with subsequent reprisals and purges offering opportunities to attempt societal transformation through violence. Finnish proto-fascists were typically affiliated with the anti-communist White Guard.
Who is identified as a clear example of proto-fascism in Finland, known for his advocacy of eugenics?
Answer: Martti Pihkala
Explanation: Martti Pihkala (1882–1966), an ideologue of the White Guard and proponent of eugenics, is considered a distinct example of proto-fascism in Finland. The irredentist Academic Karelia Society has also been characterized as proto-fascist by researcher Roger Griffin.
According to historians Paul Preston and Julián Casanova, 'Spanish fascism' shared a political culture similar to:
Answer: Italian proto-fascism and the German *Völkisch* movement
Explanation: Historians Paul Preston and Julián Casanova describe 'Spanish fascism' as emerging from the unification of right-wing groups, parties, and military rebels constituting the Nationalist faction in the Spanish Civil War. They observe that the Spanish anti-republican right shared a political culture analogous to Italian proto-fascism and the German *Völkisch* movement.
Which Spanish group is mentioned as sharing a political culture similar to proto-fascism?
Answer: The Carlist *Requetés*
Explanation: Groups including the cultural association *Acción Española*, the nationalist authoritarian corporatist party CEDA, the organization *Spanish Renovation*, and the Carlist *Requetés* are noted for sharing a political culture akin to Italian proto-fascism and the German *Völkisch* movement.
Which historical practices and social conditions in the United States are cited as precursors to proto-fascism?
Answer: Slavery, Jim Crow laws, and nativist hostility
Explanation: Proto-fascism in the United States has roots in 19th-century practices such as slavery in the Antebellum South and the Confederacy, followed by the implementation of Jim Crow laws. The ascendancy of eugenicist discourse and heightened nativist and xenophobic hostility towards immigrants also contributed.
Which group from the early 20th century US is classified by contemporary historians as a fascist organization?
Answer: The Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
Explanation: During the early 20th century, the Ku Klux Klan is cited as a prominent example of a group that contemporary historians classify as a fascist organization within the United States.
Which Spanish group, described as a nationalist authoritarian corporatist party, shared a political culture similar to proto-fascism?
Answer: Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (CEDA)
Explanation: Groups including the cultural association *Acción Española*, the nationalist authoritarian corporatist party CEDA, the organization *Spanish Renovation*, and the Carlist *Requetés* are noted for sharing a political culture akin to Italian proto-fascism and the German *Völkisch* movement.
Which historical event in Finland provided a context linked to proto-fascist activities?
Answer: The Finnish Civil War
Explanation: The Finnish Civil War provided a context for violent struggle, with subsequent reprisals and purges offering opportunities to attempt societal transformation through violence. Finnish proto-fascists were typically affiliated with the anti-communist White Guard.
Which Spanish group is noted for sharing a political culture similar to the German *Völkisch* movement?
Answer: Acción Española
Explanation: *Acción Española* propagated the concept of an anti-republican military uprising, contributing to a political culture that shared similarities with Italian proto-fascism and the German *Völkisch* movement.
Which historical context in the United States is linked to the roots of proto-fascism?
Answer: The Antebellum South's slavery system and subsequent Jim Crow laws
Explanation: Proto-fascism in the United States has roots in 19th-century practices such as slavery in the Antebellum South and the Confederacy, followed by the implementation of Jim Crow laws. The ascendancy of eugenicist discourse and heightened nativist and xenophobic hostility towards immigrants also contributed.