Explanation: The foundational definition of social stratification encompasses a broad range of socioeconomic factors, including but not limited to income and wealth, such as race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, and social status. Therefore, the assertion that it is based *solely* on income and wealth is inaccurate.

Explanation: Modern Western societies are typically understood to have a more complex class structure, commonly described in terms of upper, middle, and lower classes, often with further subdivisions, rather than just two primary classes.

Explanation: The etymological root of 'social stratification' is indeed the Latin word 'stratum,' which signifies 'layers.' This term aptly describes the hierarchical arrangement of groups within a society.

Explanation: Social stratification is fundamentally a characteristic of society, not merely an aggregation of individual differences. It reflects structured inequalities that are reproduced across generations.

Explanation: Many anthropologists dispute the universality of social stratification, pointing to egalitarian or 'acephalous' societies that lack significant social hierarchy, political status, or permanent leadership structures.

Explanation: Complex state-based and feudal societies typically exhibit more pronounced and clearly defined social stratification compared to simpler, smaller-scale societies, due to intricate divisions of labor and power structures.

Explanation: Scholarly debate regarding the origins of social stratification includes hypotheses about whether it emerged in early hunter-gatherer societies or developed later with the advent of agriculture and more complex social organization.

Explanation: Social differentiation is the process by which societies develop more intricate structures, specialized roles, and divisions, leading to increased complexity and often, greater stratification.

Explanation: The four underlying principles of stratification are that it is a characteristic of society (not individual), it is reproduced across generations, it is universal but variable, and it involves both quantitative inequality and qualitative beliefs about status.

Explanation: As a societal characteristic, social stratification is embedded within the social structures, norms, and institutions, influencing the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of individuals within that society.

Explanation: The source indicates that social stratification in modern Western societies is commonly described using a tripartite class structure: upper, middle, and lower classes, often with further subdivisions.

Explanation: The term 'social stratification' is derived from the Latin word 'stratum,' meaning 'layers,' which metaphorically represents the hierarchical arrangement of groups within a society.

Explanation: A key component of any stratification system involves the institutionalized rules and processes by which valuable societal goods are allocated across different social roles and positions.

Explanation: Anthropological research often challenges the notion of universal social stratification by presenting evidence from egalitarian or 'acephalous' societies, which lack formal hierarchies and centralized authority.

Explanation: The clear categorization of individuals into social strata is most evident in complex state-based or feudal societies, which possess intricate hierarchies and divisions of labor.

Explanation: A fundamental principle of social stratification is its universality across societies, coupled with significant variability in its specific forms and manifestations.

Explanation: Conflict theories, particularly Marxism, emphasize that social stratification is characterized by limited social mobility and unequal opportunities. These perspectives posit that dominant classes exploit subordinate classes to maintain their advantages and perpetuate systemic inequality.

Explanation: Karl Marx's theory of social class is fundamentally based on an individual's relationship to the means of production, specifically whether they own the means of production (bourgeoisie) or must sell their labor power (proletariat), rather than on social prestige or honor.

Explanation: Marx predicted that capitalism, through its inherent contradictions and class struggles, would eventually lead to a revolution and be replaced by more egalitarian, communist societies, not perpetual stratification without change.

Explanation: The 'Pyramid of Capitalist System' cartoon is a well-known critique of capitalism and social stratification, visually representing the hierarchical structure and exploitation inherent in the system from a socialist perspective.

Explanation: False consciousness, in Marxist theory, refers to the condition where subordinate classes accept the ruling class's ideology, leading them to *fail* to recognize their own exploitation and resist it effectively.

Explanation: Marx identified the 'lumpenproletariat' as the underclass, distinct from the bourgeoisie, who are the owners of the means of production. The lumpenproletariat consists of marginalized individuals with little social status.

Explanation: Conflict theory, which includes perspectives like Marxism, focuses on the inherent inequalities, power struggles, and exploitation that characterize social stratification.

Explanation: Karl Marx defined social class primarily by an individual's relationship to the means of production, distinguishing between owners (bourgeoisie) and laborers (proletariat).

Explanation: Marx predicted that the inherent contradictions within capitalism would lead to class conflict and ultimately its overthrow, paving the way for more egalitarian, communist societies.

Explanation: In Marxist theory, 'false consciousness' describes a state where subordinate classes internalize and accept the dominant ideology of the ruling class, preventing them from recognizing their own exploitation.

Explanation: Ralf Dahrendorf's observations suggested a tendency toward an enlarged middle class in modern Western societies, driven by the increasing demand for an educated workforce in technologically advanced economies.

Explanation: Max Weber's theory of stratification expanded beyond purely economic factors, incorporating dimensions of status (social honor/prestige) and power (political influence) alongside class.

Explanation: In Max Weber's framework, 'power' refers to the ability to achieve one's will despite resistance, distinct from 'status,' which denotes social honor or prestige. Class relates to economic standing.

Explanation: Max Weber's classification of social classes included the petite bourgeoisie (small business owners) and white-collar workers, alongside the upper class and the manual working class, offering a more nuanced view than Marx's binary structure.

Explanation: Max Weber did not predict the inevitability of communist revolution; rather, he foresaw an increase in bureaucratization across various societal structures, including potential communist systems.

Explanation: Ralf Dahrendorf observed a tendency towards an enlarged middle class in modern Western societies, a trend attributed to the increasing need for an educated workforce in technologically advanced economies.

Explanation: Max Weber's multidimensional theory of stratification differentiated itself from Marx's focus on economic class by incorporating status (prestige) and power (political influence) as distinct, yet interrelated, dimensions of social hierarchy.

Explanation: Max Weber defined 'status' as referring to prestige, social honor, or popularity, which is distinct from 'class' (economic standing) and 'power' (ability to achieve goals despite resistance).

Explanation: While Talcott Parsons acknowledged the role of universal values in promoting social stability, he also recognized that these values could serve as an impetus for social conflict. His view was nuanced, acknowledging the complex interplay between stability and conflict.

Explanation: The Davis-Moore hypothesis posits that social inequality is not detrimental but rather functional and necessary for societal functioning, serving as a mechanism to motivate individuals to fill important societal roles.

Explanation: While Talcott Parsons emphasized the role of shared values in social stability, he also acknowledged that stratification, and the conflicts arising from it, could indeed lead to societal instability.

Explanation: The Davis-Moore hypothesis posits that social inequality serves the function of motivating individuals to pursue and fill important societal positions by offering differential rewards, thereby ensuring societal efficiency.

Explanation: Wealth accumulation is often considered a more robust indicator of long-term stratification and socioeconomic status than income alone, as it reflects accumulated assets and resources over time.

Explanation: Gender is a fundamental characteristic that significantly influences social stratification, particularly in patriarchal societies where men typically hold greater power and privilege, affecting rights, inheritance, and opportunities.

Explanation: Social stratification is not solely determined by economic factors; it can also be based on kinship ties, clan affiliation, caste systems, and other social structures that create hierarchical divisions within a society.

Explanation: The 'social construction of whiteness' posits that racial categories, including whiteness, are socially defined and historically contingent, used to create and maintain social hierarchies, rather than being based on inherent biological superiority.

Explanation: The Gini coefficient is a statistical measure used to represent income inequality within a population, indicating the degree of deviation from perfect equality in the distribution of income, not social mobility.

Explanation: Ethnicity can be a significant basis for social stratification, manifesting through ethnic prejudice and discrimination rooted in cultural differences such as language, religion, or traditions, leading to differential social standing.

Explanation: Economic variables such as income and wealth are central to the study of social stratification, serving as primary indicators of socioeconomic status and societal hierarchy, although other social and political factors are also considered.

Explanation: While kinship ties and clan affiliation can form social strata, they are not typically classified as primary *socioeconomic* factors in the same vein as income, wealth, education, or occupation, which directly relate to economic standing and social class.

Explanation: Wealth accumulation, representing accumulated assets over time, is frequently regarded as a more comprehensive and reliable indicator of social stratification than income alone, which represents a flow of earnings.

Explanation: Race, as a basis for stratification, often involves prejudice and discrimination rooted in the social construction of perceived biological differences, leading to hierarchical categorization and differential treatment.

Explanation: The concept of the 'social construction of whiteness' highlights how racial categories, including whiteness, are socially and historically constructed to establish and maintain social hierarchies and power differentials.

Explanation: The Gini coefficient is a statistical measure commonly employed to quantify the extent of income inequality within a given population, serving as an indicator of economic stratification.

Explanation: Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups between different social positions or strata within a stratification system. The development of intricate structures and divisions is known as social differentiation.

Explanation: C. Wright Mills identified the 'power elite' as comprising leaders from the political, military, and corporate spheres. The judicial branch, while influential, is not typically listed as one of the primary three branches in his formulation.

Explanation: Zygmunt Bauman provocatively suggested that in late modern times, mobility—the freedom to move and change one's position—has become a highly coveted value and a primary stratifying factor, rather than immobility.

Explanation: Achieved status is earned through an individual's efforts, accomplishments, and choices. Status determined by birth or inherited characteristics is known as ascribed status.

Explanation: Intersectionality analyzes how multiple social identities (e.g., race, gender, class, sexual orientation) interact and overlap, creating unique experiences of privilege or discrimination, rather than focusing on single identities in isolation.

Explanation: Social exclusion is the process by which individuals or groups are marginalized and denied access to resources, opportunities, and full participation in society, thereby reinforcing stratification.

Explanation: The 'American Dream' is a cultural ideal that posits upward mobility is attainable through hard work and individual effort, suggesting that success is possible regardless of one's starting social position.

Explanation: The precariat refers to a social class characterized by precarious employment, unstable income, and a lack of guaranteed benefits, representing a modern form of economic insecurity.

Explanation: Social capital, comprising strong social networks and relationships, is recognized as having a significant impact on economic mobility, often facilitating access to opportunities and resources.

Explanation: An 'open' stratification system is characterized by a high degree of social mobility, allowing individuals to move between social strata based on achieved status, whereas restricted mobility is characteristic of 'closed' systems.

Explanation: Rankism refers to discrimination or unfair treatment based on a person's perceived rank or status within a hierarchy, thus being directly related to social hierarchy and stratification.

Explanation: Social exclusion is a mechanism that reinforces social stratification by systematically denying marginalized groups access to essential resources, opportunities, and social participation, thereby perpetuating their disadvantaged position.

Explanation: C. Wright Mills, in his seminal work, described the 'power elite' as a concentrated group of leaders from the political, military, and corporate sectors who wield significant influence over societal decisions.

Explanation: Zygmunt Bauman argued that in late modern society, mobility—the capacity for movement and change—has become a highly valued and unequally distributed commodity, thus serving as a significant stratifying factor.

Explanation: Ascribed status refers to a social position assigned to an individual at birth or based on characteristics over which they have no control, such as race, gender, or family lineage.

Explanation: Intersectionality posits that various social identities (race, gender, class, etc.) interact and intersect, producing unique and complex experiences of privilege, oppression, and discrimination.

Explanation: The term 'precariat' denotes a social class characterized by precarious employment, unstable income, and a lack of job security and benefits, reflecting a modern form of economic vulnerability.

Explanation: Social capital, derived from social networks, can significantly facilitate upward economic mobility by providing access to information, resources, and opportunities that might otherwise be unavailable.

Explanation: The ideal of the 'American Dream' posits that success and upward mobility in the United States are primarily achievable through diligent effort and individual merit, irrespective of one's background.

Explanation: The Khoisan practice of 'insulting the meat' serves to temper arrogance and prevent excessive pride in successful hunters, thereby reinforcing social equality rather than encouraging individual achievement.

Explanation: Core countries in global stratification are characterized by owning and controlling advanced means of production and performing higher-level tasks, rather than primarily providing low-skilled labor, which is characteristic of periphery countries.

Explanation: Global labor arbitrage is indeed the practice where companies leverage the lowest labor costs, often from periphery and semi-periphery nations, to enhance their economic competitiveness and profitability.

Explanation: Aboriginal groups on Groote Eylandt practice 'renunciation' by giving away resources to others, aiming to prevent hoarding and relative poverty, which contrasts with the idea of personal gain through hoarding.

Explanation: Periphery countries, within the framework of global stratification, are characterized by owning minimal means of production and often serve as sources of raw materials and low-skilled labor for core nations.

Explanation: The Khoisan practice of 'insulting the meat' is a cultural mechanism designed to prevent excessive pride and maintain social equality by tempering the achievements of successful hunters.

Explanation: Periphery countries, within World-systems theory, are characterized by limited ownership of the means of production and typically supply low-skilled labor and raw materials to the global economy.