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The initial establishment of a permanent Spanish settlement in the Americas occurred on Hispaniola in 1493.
Answer: True
Explanation: The foundational Spanish presence in the Americas began with the establishment of a settlement on Hispaniola in 1493, following Christopher Columbus's initial voyage in 1492.
The initial Spanish expansion into the Americas received authorization from the monarchs Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II.
Answer: True
Explanation: Queen Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon were the reigning monarchs who sponsored Christopher Columbus's voyages and authorized the subsequent Spanish expansion into the Americas.
The primary motivations for Spanish expansion were solely economic, focused on acquiring gold.
Answer: False
Explanation: While economic gain, particularly gold, was a significant motivation, Spanish expansion was also driven by desires for prestige ('glory') and the religious imperative to spread Christianity ('God').
Spanish expeditions, known as *entradas*, were typically funded by the Spanish Crown, rather than by the expedition leaders.
Answer: False
Explanation: Spanish expeditions, or *entradas*, were generally financed through investments made by the expedition leader and their participants, who sought personal profit and royal favor, rather than direct funding from the Crown.
The papal decree *Inter caetera* allocated newly discovered lands exclusively to Spain, thereby excluding Portugal.
Answer: False
Explanation: The *Inter caetera* papal bull of 1493 divided newly discovered Western Hemisphere lands between Spain and Portugal, establishing a line of demarcation. It did not grant *all* lands exclusively to Spain while entirely excluding Portugal from any claim or division.
The principal motivation for establishing settlements on the islands of Cubagua and Margarita was the exploitation of abundant pearl beds.
Answer: True
Explanation: The rich pearl beds found in the waters surrounding Cubagua and Margarita islands were the primary economic driver for early Spanish settlement in that region.
The region of Argentina, encompassing areas like Buenos Aires, initially presented less appeal to Spanish conquerors in comparison to Mexico or Peru.
Answer: True
Explanation: Argentina held less appeal for early Spanish conquerors due to its sparse indigenous population and the absence of readily accessible precious metals or other highly lucrative resources, contrasting sharply with the densely populated and resource-abundant regions of Mexico and Peru.
Juan Ponce de León is credited as the first European to sight Florida, an event that occurred in 1513.
Answer: True
Explanation: Historical records indicate that Juan Ponce de León's expedition in 1513 marked the first documented European encounter with the landmass known as Florida.
Founded in 1565, St. Augustine is recognized as one of the oldest continuously inhabited European settlements within the present-day United States.
Answer: True
Explanation: St. Augustine, established by the Spanish in 1565, holds the distinction of being one of the earliest and longest-standing European settlements in what is now the United States.
The presence of dense indigenous populations and the availability of exploitable resources served as pivotal factors influencing the density of Spanish settlement.
Answer: True
Explanation: Spanish settlement patterns were heavily influenced by the concentration of indigenous populations, which provided labor, and the presence of valuable resources, particularly precious metals, which drove economic activity.
When did the Spanish colonization of the Americas commence, and on which Caribbean island was the initial permanent settlement established?
Answer: 1493, on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola.
Explanation: The foundational Spanish presence in the Americas began with the establishment of a settlement on Hispaniola in 1493, following Christopher Columbus's initial voyage in 1492.
Which European monarchs initiated the Spanish expansion into the Americas, and what treaty formally divided newly discovered territories between Spain and Portugal?
Answer: Isabella I and Ferdinand II, and the Treaty of Tordesillas.
Explanation: Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon oversaw the initial expansion. The Treaty of Tordesillas, concluded in 1494, formally delineated the spheres of influence and divided the newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal.
The phrase 'gold, glory, God' summarizes the main motivations for Spanish expansion. Which option best represents these motivations?
Answer: Economic wealth, personal prestige, and spreading Christianity.
Explanation: The driving motivations for Spanish expansion encompassed the acquisition of material wealth (gold), the enhancement of personal and royal prestige (glory), and the religious imperative to disseminate Christianity (God).
How were Spanish expeditions, known as *entradas*, typically financed?
Answer: Through investments made by the expedition leader and participants.
Explanation: Spanish expeditions, designated as *entradas*, were predominantly financed through the personal investments of the leader and participants, who anticipated substantial profits. The leader, frequently designated as an *adelantado*, held a prominent position, securing royal sanction and mobilizing investors.
What was the purpose of the *Inter caetera* papal decree issued in 1493?
Answer: To divide newly discovered Western Hemisphere lands between Spain and Portugal.
Explanation: Promulgated by Pope Alexander VI in 1493, the *Inter caetera* decree delineated the division of newly discovered territories in the Western Hemisphere between Spain and Portugal, contingent upon their commitment to propagating Christianity.
What valuable resource led to the initial Spanish settlement of islands like Cubagua and Margarita?
Answer: Extensive pearl beds
Explanation: The Spanish established settlements on Cubagua and Margarita principally to exploit the abundant and valuable pearl beds discovered in their surrounding waters.
Why was the region of Argentina, including Buenos Aires, initially less attractive to Spanish conquerors compared to Mexico or Peru?
Answer: It lacked significant indigenous populations and readily available precious metals.
Explanation: Argentina held less appeal for early Spanish conquerors due to its sparse indigenous population and the absence of readily accessible precious metals or other highly lucrative resources, contrasting sharply with the densely populated and resource-abundant regions of Mexico and Peru.
Who is credited with the first European sighting of Florida, and in what year did this occur?
Answer: Juan Ponce de León, 1513
Explanation: Historical records indicate that Juan Ponce de León's expedition in 1513 marked the first documented European encounter with the landmass known as Florida.
What is the historical significance of St. Augustine, Florida, founded in 1565?
Answer: It is considered the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement in the present-day United States.
Explanation: The founding of St. Augustine in 1565 represents the establishment of arguably the oldest continuously inhabited settlement of European origin within the present-day United States.
Which two factors primarily influenced where the Spanish established dense settlements in the Americas?
Answer: Presence of dense indigenous populations and valuable resources.
Explanation: The density of Spanish settlement was significantly influenced by two primary factors: the presence of concentrated, organized indigenous populations available for labor, and the availability of exploitable resources, notably precious metals such as silver and gold.
Hernán Cortés was responsible for the conquest of the Inca Empire, whereas Francisco Pizarro conquered the Aztec Empire.
Answer: False
Explanation: This statement reverses the historical roles: Hernán Cortés led the conquest of the Aztec Empire, and Francisco Pizarro led the conquest of the Inca Empire.
Spanish conquistadors seldom exploited pre-existing rivalries among indigenous groups during their conquest campaigns.
Answer: False
Explanation: On the contrary, Spanish conquistadors frequently and effectively exploited existing rivalries and political divisions among indigenous groups, forming alliances with those who opposed dominant powers, such as the Tlaxcalans against the Aztecs.
Spanish colonial administration consistently disregarded pre-existing indigenous political structures.
Answer: False
Explanation: Spanish colonial administration often incorporated and adapted existing indigenous political structures, utilizing local elites as intermediaries to facilitate governance and tribute collection, rather than entirely ignoring them.
The formation of alliances with indigenous groups, such as the Tlaxcalans, proved crucial for the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.
Answer: True
Explanation: The strategic alliances forged by Spanish conquistadors with indigenous groups who opposed Aztec dominance, most notably the Tlaxcalans, were instrumental in the eventual Spanish victory over the Aztec Empire.
Which conquistador is credited with the conquest of the Aztec Empire?
Answer: Hernán Cortés
Explanation: Hernán Cortés spearheaded the conquest of the Aztec Empire, while Francisco Pizarro directed the subjugation of the Inca Empire in Peru.
How did the Spanish utilize indigenous rivalries during the conquest of the Aztec Empire?
Answer: By forming alliances with groups like the Tlaxcalans who opposed Aztec rule.
Explanation: The Spanish frequently exploited existing inter-indigenous conflicts. For example, during the conquest of the Aztec Empire, they forged critical alliances with groups such as the Tlaxcalans, who harbored aspirations to overthrow Aztec hegemony.
Which internal conflict within the Inca Empire did Francisco Pizarro and his forces exploit?
Answer: A succession war between the Inca brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar.
Explanation: The Spanish capitalized on the civil war between the Inca brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar, alongside the existing resentment harbored by indigenous nations subjugated by the Incas.
How did the Spanish Empire incorporate existing indigenous political and economic structures into its colonial administration?
Answer: By recognizing local elites and using them as intermediaries.
Explanation: The Spanish administration frequently incorporated existing indigenous structures by acknowledging the status of local elites, assigning them intermediary roles, and adapting indigenous systems of tribute and labor service to facilitate the extraction of resources and the exercise of governance.
After the conquest of empires like the Aztec and Inca, what role did indigenous elites often assume?
Answer: They served as intermediaries facilitating Spanish administration.
Explanation: Indigenous elites frequently assumed an intermediary role, preserving their status and titles, and thereby facilitating the Spanish administration's access to tribute and labor from the broader indigenous populace.
The *encomienda* system, in its initial application within the Caribbean, compelled the Taíno population to engage in labor, including the extraction of gold.
Answer: True
Explanation: The *encomienda* system allocated Spanish settlers authority over designated indigenous communities, entitling them to the community's labor and tribute. Within the Caribbean, this system was employed to compel the Taíno population towards labor, including the extraction of gold.
The Spanish *mita* system, as implemented in Peru, represented a novel labor system devised exclusively for silver mining operations.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Spanish *mita* system was an adaptation of a pre-existing indigenous rotational labor draft. While it was extensively utilized for silver mining, particularly at Potosí, it was not entirely new but rather a modification of an established practice.
Cochineal, a red dye derived from insects, constituted a minor export product originating from Spanish America.
Answer: False
Explanation: Cochineal, a vibrant red dye produced from the dried bodies of insects inhabiting cacti, was a highly valuable and economically significant export for Spanish America, ranking second only to silver in importance for a period.
Cane sugar cultivation ultimately emerged as a primary economic activity within the early Caribbean settlements.
Answer: True
Explanation: Subsequent to the decline in gold extraction and the diminishing indigenous labor force, cane sugar cultivation evolved into the predominant economic activity sustaining early Caribbean settlements, necessitating a substantial labor supply, which subsequently led to the importation of enslaved Africans.
The conquest of the Aztec Empire yielded immense wealth for the Spanish, predominantly in the form of silver.
Answer: False
Explanation: While the conquest of the Aztec Empire provided significant wealth, it was primarily derived from gold and tribute, rather than silver, which became more prominent later with the exploitation of mines like Potosí.
The extraction of silver emerged as the most significant economic driver for the Spanish colonial economy.
Answer: True
Explanation: Following the initial focus on gold, the discovery and extensive exploitation of silver mines, particularly in Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico), transformed silver extraction into the cornerstone of the Spanish colonial economy and a major source of wealth for the Crown.
What was the primary function of the *encomienda* system in its initial application in the Caribbean?
Answer: To compel the Taíno population to provide labor and tribute, including gold extraction.
Explanation: The *encomienda* system allocated Spanish settlers authority over designated indigenous communities, entitling them to the community's labor and tribute. Within the Caribbean, this system was employed to compel the Taíno population towards labor, including the extraction of gold.
What was the *mita* system, as adapted by the Spanish in Peru?
Answer: A rotational labor draft, adapted for silver mining.
Explanation: The *mita* system represented a traditional indigenous practice of rotational labor. In Peru, the Spanish revived and adapted this system to furnish a labor force for the burgeoning silver mines, most notably those at Potosí.
Cochineal, a valuable Spanish American export, was derived from what source?
Answer: Insects found on cacti, used to create a red dye.
Explanation: Cochineal, a vibrant and color-fast red dye derived from the dried bodies of insects inhabiting cacti, became an exceptionally valuable export commodity due to its superior quality and high demand in European markets, eventually ranking second only to silver in economic significance.
After initial difficulties with gold extraction, what became the primary economic activity sustaining early Spanish settlements in the Caribbean?
Answer: Cane sugar cultivation
Explanation: Subsequent to the decline in gold extraction and the diminishing indigenous labor force, cane sugar cultivation evolved into the predominant economic activity sustaining early Caribbean settlements, necessitating a substantial labor supply, which subsequently led to the importation of enslaved Africans.
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was significant because:
Answer: It yielded immense wealth, fulfilling long-held hopes for riches.
Explanation: The conquest of the Aztec Empire represented the first instance where Spaniards encountered wealth on the grand scale they had long anticipated, primarily through the appropriation of gold and silver.
What was the primary economic driver of the Spanish colonial economy, particularly after the initial search for gold?
Answer: Extraction of silver.
Explanation: Following the initial focus on gold, the discovery and extensive exploitation of silver mines, particularly in Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico), transformed silver extraction into the cornerstone of the Spanish colonial economy and a major source of wealth for the Crown.
King Charles I of Spain granted territorial rights in Venezuela to the Welser banking family as a means to repay outstanding military debts.
Answer: True
Explanation: In 1528, Charles I granted the Welser banking family the right to colonize and exploit western Venezuela in exchange for repayment of debts, establishing a unique arrangement known as Klein-Venedig.
The Laws of Burgos were enacted with the objective of granting complete autonomy to indigenous communities.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Laws of Burgos (1512-1513) were intended to regulate the *encomienda* system and mitigate its abuses, not to grant complete autonomy. They sought to establish rules for the treatment and labor of indigenous peoples under Spanish control.
The *Patronato real* conferred upon the Pope substantial control over the Spanish Crown's appointments within the Americas.
Answer: False
Explanation: Conversely, the *Patronato real* granted the Spanish monarch, not the Pope, significant control over ecclesiastical appointments and church affairs in the Americas, effectively subordinating church administration to royal authority.
The *Audiencias* functioned primarily as advisory bodies, lacking any substantial power to counterbalance the authority of viceroys.
Answer: False
Explanation: The *Audiencias* served a dual role as high courts of justice and administrative bodies. They possessed significant executive and legislative powers and acted as a crucial check on the authority of viceroys, capable of reporting directly to the Crown.
The primary purpose for the establishment of Spanish *presidios* was trade regulation.
Answer: False
Explanation: Spanish *presidios* were fundamentally military installations, established as forts and garrisons to protect frontiers, secure Spanish claims, and defend against indigenous attacks, rather than to regulate trade.
*Letrados* primarily served as military leaders tasked with executing conquest operations.
Answer: False
Explanation: *Letrados* were university-trained legal scholars and administrators who played crucial roles in the bureaucracy and judiciary of the Spanish Empire, not as military leaders responsible for conquest.
The *Cabildo* bore the responsibility for overseeing the Spanish Inquisition within colonial towns.
Answer: False
Explanation: The *Cabildo*, or town council, was primarily responsible for local municipal governance, including public order, land distribution, and local administration. The Spanish Inquisition was a separate ecclesiastical institution, not overseen by the *Cabildo*.
The *Casa de Contratación* was instituted to oversee all trade and emigration between Spain and the Americas.
Answer: True
Explanation: Established in Seville in 1503, the *Casa de Contratación* was created to meticulously control and regulate all maritime trade and emigration between Spain and its American colonies, manage the financial aspects of overseas enterprises, and adjudicate legal matters pertaining to this commerce.
The *Provincias Internas* constituted administrative districts situated in southern Mexico.
Answer: False
Explanation: The *Provincias Internas* were administrative divisions established in the northern frontier regions of New Spain, encompassing territories that now form parts of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, not southern Mexico.
The *Patronato real* bestowed upon the Spanish monarch extensive control over the Catholic Church operating within the Americas.
Answer: True
Explanation: The *Patronato real*, a papal grant, gave the Spanish Crown significant authority over church appointments, administration, and finances in the Americas, effectively integrating the Church into the colonial governance structure.
Spanish *presidios* functioned as military forts established for the protection of frontiers.
Answer: True
Explanation: *Presidios* were indeed military fortifications established by the Spanish along frontiers to defend settlements, secure territory, and project power, playing a crucial role in colonial defense.
The *Requerimiento* served as a document employed for the peaceful negotiation of trade agreements with indigenous peoples.
Answer: False
Explanation: The *Requerimiento* was a declaration read to indigenous peoples, informing them of Spanish sovereignty and religious authority. It demanded submission, and failure to comply was used to legitimize conquest and enslavement, rather than serving as a tool for peaceful trade negotiation.
The *Audiencias* operated as high courts of justice and administrative bodies integral to the colonial system.
Answer: True
Explanation: The *Audiencias* played a vital dual role as the highest judicial tribunals in the colonies and also possessed significant administrative and advisory functions, serving as key components of the Spanish imperial governance structure.
What unique colonial arrangement did Charles I of Spain make with the Welser banking family concerning Venezuela?
Answer: They received rights to colonize and exploit western Venezuela to repay debts.
Explanation: In 1528, Charles I granted the Welser banking family extensive rights to colonize and exploit western Venezuela, primarily as a mechanism for repaying outstanding debts, a concession that led to the establishment of the settlement known as Klein-Venedig.
What was the intended purpose of the 'Laws of Burgos' enacted in 1512-1513?
Answer: To regulate the *encomienda* system and prevent the worst abuses of indigenous peoples.
Explanation: The Laws of Burgos constituted the first codified legal framework for Spanish settlers in the Americas, primarily intended to regulate the *encomienda* system by prohibiting the severe maltreatment of indigenous peoples and mandating their resettlement and conversion to Catholicism.
What power did the *Patronato real* grant to the Spanish monarch regarding the Church in the Americas?
Answer: Control over appointing bishops and defining diocesan boundaries.
Explanation: The *Patronato real* was a significant privilege bestowed by the Pope upon the Spanish monarchy, granting it extensive control over the Catholic Church within the Americas. This authority included the appointment of bishops and other ecclesiastical officials, and the delineation of diocesan boundaries.
What was the dual function of the *Audiencias* in the Spanish colonial administrative system?
Answer: High courts of justice and administrative oversight.
Explanation: The *Audiencias* functioned as the highest judicial tribunals within the colonies and also possessed significant administrative and advisory capacities, serving as key components of the Spanish imperial governance structure.
What was the primary purpose of establishing Spanish *presidios* on the frontiers?
Answer: To act as military forts protecting settlers and claims.
Explanation: *Presidios* were military fortifications and garrisons strategically established to safeguard Spanish settlers against indigenous hostilities and to secure Spanish territorial claims in frontier zones.
What role did *letrados* play in the Spanish Empire?
Answer: Serving as university-trained lawyers, bureaucrats, and administrators.
Explanation: *Letrados* were university-trained legal scholars who functioned as indispensable bureaucrats and administrators throughout the Spanish Empire, occupying critical positions both in the Iberian Peninsula and in its overseas territories.
What was the function of the *Cabildo* in Spanish colonial towns?
Answer: To manage municipal governance and local affairs.
Explanation: The *Cabildo*, functioning as the town council, comprised prominent local residents (*vecinos*) and was entrusted with municipal governance, encompassing responsibilities such as land allocation, local taxation, maintaining public order, and overseeing public works and sanitation.
What was the primary function of the *Casa de Contratación* (House of Trade) established in Seville in 1503?
Answer: To regulate all trade and emigration between Spain and the Americas.
Explanation: The *Casa de Contratación* was instituted to meticulously control and regulate all maritime trade and emigration between Spain and its American colonies, manage the financial aspects of overseas enterprises, and adjudicate legal matters pertaining to this commerce.
The *Provincias Internas* were administrative districts established in which region of the Spanish Empire?
Answer: The northern frontier regions of New Spain.
Explanation: The *Provincias Internas* constituted administrative districts established by Spain within the northern frontier regions of New Spain, typically encompassing territories that now comprise the southwestern United States and northern Mexico.
The Columbian Exchange's primary focus was the transfer of manufactured goods originating from Europe to the Americas.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Columbian Exchange encompassed the transfer of plants, animals, diseases, technology, and ideas between the Old World and the Americas. While manufactured goods were part of this exchange, it was fundamentally characterized by the biological and cultural transfers, with diseases having a particularly devastating impact on indigenous populations.
The Napoleonic invasion of Spain engendered conditions that facilitated the outbreak of the Spanish American wars of independence.
Answer: True
Explanation: The political instability and power vacuum in Spain resulting from the Napoleonic invasion in the early 19th century provided a critical opportunity for Spanish American colonies to pursue independence, fueled by Enlightenment ideals and local grievances.
The Bourbon Reforms were designed with the objective of decentralizing power away from the Spanish Crown.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Bourbon Reforms, implemented in the 18th century, aimed precisely at centralizing power and strengthening royal authority within the Spanish Empire, reforming administration, economy, and military structures to increase efficiency and Crown control.
The *Libertadores* were Spanish officials responsible for suppressing independence movements during the 19th century.
Answer: False
Explanation: Conversely, the *Libertadores* were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence, fighting *against* Spanish rule to achieve self-governance, not Spanish officials suppressing these movements.
What was the Columbian Exchange?
Answer: The transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between the Old World and the Americas.
Explanation: The Columbian Exchange denotes the extensive transfer of plants, animals, diseases, technologies, and ideas between the Old World and the Americas. Its most profound impact on indigenous populations was the introduction of infectious diseases, to which they possessed no immunity, resulting in catastrophic demographic collapse.
Which event in Europe significantly contributed to the outbreak of the Spanish American wars of independence?
Answer: The Napoleonic invasion of Spain.
Explanation: The Napoleonic invasion of Spain, precipitating profound political instability and a power vacuum, created a critical opportunity for Spanish American colonies to pursue independence, further influenced by Enlightenment ideals and preceding revolutionary movements.
Who were the *Libertadores*?
Answer: Key leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence.
Explanation: The *Libertadores* were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence, fighting *against* Spanish rule to achieve self-governance, not Spanish officials suppressing these movements.
Social, Demographic, and Ideological Impacts
The impact of European infectious diseases on the indigenous populations of the Americas following 1492 is best characterized as minor.
Answer: False
Explanation: The introduction of European infectious diseases, to which indigenous populations had no immunity, was the primary catalyst for catastrophic population declines, not a minor factor.
The term 'Black Legend' is employed to characterize the positive portrayal of Spanish colonial endeavors.
Answer: False
Explanation: The 'Black Legend' refers to a historiographical tradition that emphasizes the negative aspects of Spanish colonial history, particularly the cruelty and exploitation inflicted upon indigenous populations, rather than a positive portrayal.
The Valladolid debate centered on determining the most effective methods for extracting gold from the Americas.
Answer: False
Explanation: The Valladolid debate (1550-1551) was a significant intellectual and ethical confrontation concerning the justification of Spanish colonization and the fundamental rights of indigenous peoples, not the methods of gold extraction.
The *República de Indios* and the *República de Españoles* constituted a unified social structure within the Spanish colonies.
Answer: False
Explanation: These designations represented distinct legal classifications that segregated indigenous communities (the *República de Indios*) from Spaniards and other non-indigenous populations (the *República de Españoles*), thereby establishing separate social and administrative frameworks within the colonial empire.
The 'spiritual conquest' served to justify Spanish rule by emphasizing the extraction of resources.
Answer: False
Explanation: The 'spiritual conquest' referred to the evangelization of indigenous populations and their conversion to Catholicism, which was presented as a primary justification for Spanish colonization and rule, rather than focusing on resource extraction.
What was the principal cause for the substantial decline observed in the indigenous population subsequent to European arrival?
Answer: The introduction and spread of infectious diseases.
Explanation: The principal cause for the dramatic decline in the indigenous population, estimated to be as high as 80% within the first century and a half following Columbus's voyages, was the introduction and widespread transmission of infectious diseases.
The Valladolid debate (1550-1551) is considered significant in the history of human rights because it addressed:
Answer: The legal justification for colonization and the rights of indigenous peoples.
Explanation: The Valladolid debate (1550-1551) represented a formal intellectual confrontation in Spain addressing the ethical and legal justifications for colonization and the inherent rights and proper treatment of indigenous peoples, marking a pivotal moment in the nascent discourse on human rights.
In Spanish colonial society, what was the distinction between the *República de Indios* and the *República de Españoles*?
Answer: Legal classifications separating indigenous communities from Spaniards and others.
Explanation: These designations represented distinct legal classifications that segregated indigenous communities (the *República de Indios*) from Spaniards and other non-indigenous populations (the *República de Españoles*), thereby establishing separate social and administrative frameworks within the colonial empire.
What did the 'spiritual conquest' refer to in the context of Spanish colonization?
Answer: The process of evangelizing indigenous populations to Catholicism.
Explanation: The 'spiritual conquest' denotes the systematic process of evangelizing indigenous populations and facilitating their conversion to Catholicism, a mission frequently employed by the Spanish as a primary justification for their conquest and subsequent governance of the Americas.