What is the Ahrensburg culture and what period does it represent?

The Ahrensburg culture, also known as Ahrensburgian, was a nomadic hunter culture that existed during the Late Upper Paleolithic period. It is classified as a technocomplex, indicating a shared set of technologies and practices among groups of people.

What are the approximate dates for the existence of the Ahrensburg culture?

The Ahrensburg culture is dated to approximately 12,900 to 11,700 Before Present (BP). This timeframe places it within the latter part of the Upper Paleolithic era.

What specific climatic period is most associated with the Ahrensburg culture?

The Ahrensburg culture is primarily associated with the Younger Dryas, which was the last significant cold spell at the end of the Weichsel glaciation. This period was characterized by a colder climate, deforestation, and the prevalence of tundra environments with hardy vegetation like arctic white birch and rowan.

What was the primary prey animal for the Ahrensburg hunters?

The most important prey for the Ahrensburg culture was the wild reindeer. Their nomadic lifestyle was likely centered around following reindeer herds.

What significant technological innovation is definitively linked to the Ahrensburg culture?

The earliest definite finds of the arrow and bow as hunting weapons date to the Ahrensburg culture. While these weapons might have been invented earlier, the archaeological evidence from this period provides the first conclusive proof of their use.

Which archaeological cultures preceded and followed the Ahrensburg culture?

The Ahrensburg culture was preceded by the Hamburg and Federmesser cultures. It was subsequently superseded by the Maglemosian and Swiderian cultures, marking a transition in the technological and cultural landscape of post-glacial Europe.

Where does the name 'Ahrensburg culture' originate from?

The culture is named after a tunnel valley located near the town of Ahrensburg, which is situated northeast of Hamburg in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Archaeological excavations at sites like Meiendorf, Stellmoor, and Borneck in this vicinity yielded significant finds attributed to this culture.

What environmental conditions characterized the period of the Ahrensburg culture?

The Ahrensburg culture existed during the Younger Dryas, a period of significant climatic cooling. This resulted in widespread deforestation and the formation of a tundra landscape dominated by arctic white birch and rowan trees.

How far north did the Ahrensburg culture's reach extend?

The Ahrensburg culture's influence extended as far north as the Isles of Orkney, located in northern Scotland. This demonstrates a considerable geographical spread for this nomadic hunter group.

What is the significance of the Stellmoor excavation site for the Ahrensburg culture?

Stellmoor was a seasonal settlement, likely inhabited primarily during October, where archaeologists discovered the remains of 650 reindeer. This site provided crucial evidence of the Ahrensburg culture's hunting practices, including the use of bow and arrow, and yielded well-preserved pine arrow shafts fitted with characteristic tanged flint arrowheads.

What evidence from Stellmoor suggests possible ritualistic practices?

At Stellmoor, archaeologists found several intact reindeer skeletons with arrowheads embedded in their chests. These findings are interpreted as potential sacrifices made to higher powers by the inhabitants of the settlement.

What types of structures were found at the Stellmoor site, and what might they have been used for?

Circles of stones were discovered at the Stellmoor settlement, which archaeologists believe served as foundations for hide teepees. These structures would have provided shelter for the nomadic hunters during their seasonal occupation of the site.

How did the Ahrensburg culture relate to the Hamburg and Federmesser cultures in terms of origin and development?

The Ahrensburg culture is considered to have developed from or in close relation to earlier cultures like the Hamburgian and Federmesser. Specifically, new information suggests the Ahrensburgian techno-complex may have originated from the Havelte stage of the Hamburg culture, potentially predating the Younger Dryas. The Federmesser culture, characterized by 'Backed Point' lithics, is seen by some as a transitional phase between the Hamburgian and Brommean cultures in southern Scandinavia.

What are the proposed origins of the Ahrensburg culture, and what evidence supports them?

Several theories propose the origins of the Ahrensburg culture. One prominent view suggests a direct derivation from the Havelte stage of the Hamburg culture. Another perspective posits that flint artifacts with tanged points found in Bromme culture sites may have preceded and influenced the Ahrensburgian techno-complex. The Grensk culture, found in Bromme territory, has also been proposed as a direct originator, though its exact chronological placement and relationship are still debated.

What is the significance of tanged points in relation to the Ahrensburg and Bromme cultures?

Tanged points are a significant artifact type associated with both the Bromme and Ahrensburg cultures. In Lithuania, new developments introduced massive and smaller tanged points, and this technology is proposed to be an innovation derived from Havelte groups, potentially linking the Bromme culture to the Ahrensburg culture.

What does the text suggest about the relationship between the Hamburgian, Federmesser, and Brommean cultures?

The text indicates that the Hamburgian culture was geographically and chronologically succeeded by the Federmesser culture. Some Federmesser types are considered part of the early Brommean inventory, and in southern Scandinavia, the Federmesser might represent a brief transitional phase between the Hamburgian and Brommean cultures. Tanged point cultures like Bromme are thought to be based on the Magdalenian and associated with reindeer hunting.

What is the 'skaftunge' arrowhead, and to which culture is it characteristic?

The 'skaftunge' arrowhead is characteristic of the Ahrensburg culture. These were tanged arrowheads made of flint, and well-preserved pine arrow shafts intended for them were found at sites like Stellmoor.

What does the presence of pine arrow shafts at Stellmoor indicate about Ahrensburgian technology?

The discovery of well-preserved pine arrow shafts at Stellmoor indicates that the Ahrensburg people utilized wood for their projectile shafts, fitting them with their characteristic flint 'skaftunge' arrowheads. This demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of materials for tool and weapon construction.

How did the Ahrensburg culture adapt to the environmental changes following the last glaciation?

The Ahrensburg culture emerged during the transition from the Late Paleolithic to the early Mesolithic, coinciding with glacial recession and the extinction of megafauna. This prompted adaptations such as exploiting maritime resources and migrating northward into newly accessible territories. Their nomadic lifestyle was well-suited to following prey like reindeer across the changing landscapes.

What is the significance of the Ahrensburg culture's presence in areas now submerged under the North and Baltic Seas?

The fact that Ahrensburgian find sites are located in areas now submerged under the North and Baltic Seas highlights that during the Younger Dryas, sea levels were considerably lower. This exposed vast land bridges and coastal plains that were inhabited by these hunter-gatherer groups.

What does the term 'technocomplex' mean in the context of the Ahrensburg culture?

The term 'technocomplex' refers to a group of archaeological cultures or sites that share a common set of technological characteristics, such as specific tool types or manufacturing techniques. Applying it to the Ahrensburg culture emphasizes the shared lithic technology and hunting strategies across its geographical distribution.

What evidence suggests that the Ahrensburg culture was nomadic?

The description of the Ahrensburg culture as a 'nomadic hunter culture' implies a lifestyle centered around following animal herds, particularly reindeer, and moving seasonally to exploit resources. The discovery of seasonal settlements like Stellmoor further supports this nomadic pattern.

What role did maritime resources play in the adaptations of cultures during the transition from the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic?

During the transition from the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, the extinction of megafauna provided an incentive for groups like the Ahrensburg culture to exploit other subsistence strategies, including maritime resources. This shift was part of a broader adaptation to changing environmental conditions and available food sources.

What is the 'Hensbacka group' in Scandinavia, and how does it relate to the Ahrensburg culture?

The Hensbacka group, found on the west coast of Sweden, is identified as an example of the cultural fragmentation that occurred within the Continental Ahrensburgian tradition. Its earliest traces date to the transition from the Younger Dryas to the Preboreal period, and it is suggested to have developed autochthonously, with rapid climatic change stimulating swift cultural adaptation.

What does the text imply about the continuity of settlement in Scandinavia during the early Mesolithic?

The text suggests that in Scandinavia, particularly concerning the Hensbacka group, there was no significant break in settlement continuity at the beginning of the Mesolithic. New dating evidence points towards an autochthonous development, where rapid climatic changes spurred swift cultural adaptations rather than requiring entirely new migrations.

What is the significance of the 'Shouldered Point' lithics in relation to the Hamburgian culture?

The 'Shouldered Point' lithics are a defining characteristic of the Hamburgian culture. This techno-complex is noted as being closely related to the Creswellian culture and rooted in the Magdalenian tradition.

What is the 'Backed Point' lithic type, and which culture is it associated with?

The 'Backed Point' lithic type is characteristic of the Federmesser culture. These artifacts are typically dated to the Allerød Interstadial and are found in regions including Northern Germany, Poland, and southern Lithuania.

What evidence suggests a connection between the Ahrensburg culture and the Bromme culture?

Evidence suggesting a connection between the Ahrensburg and Bromme cultures includes the presence of tanged points, a technology found in both. Some theories propose that flint artifacts with Bromme tanged-point groups may have preceded and influenced the development of the Ahrensburg culture, or that the Grensk culture, originating in Bromme territory, was a direct precursor to the Ahrensburgian culture.

What was the environmental context of Northern Germany during the Meiendorf Interstadial, and how did it relate to human settlement?

The Meiendorf Interstadial, beginning around 12,700 BCE, marked a significant temperature rise. This warming trend facilitated the expansion of hunter-gatherers into the northern Lowlands of Germany, indicating a direct correlation between climatic improvement and the re-colonization of the region.

What is the proposed relationship between the Magdalenian culture and the tanged point cultures of the Allerød period?

Tanged point cultures, such as the Brommean or Bromme-Lyngby complex, are proposed to be based on the Magdalenian tradition. These cultures were active during the Allerød period and are closely associated with reindeer hunting.

What does the text suggest about the dating of the Ahrensburgian techno-complex in relation to the Younger Dryas?

While traditionally associated with the Younger Dryas and the Pre-boreal period, new information suggests that the Ahrensburgian techno-complex likely began before the Younger Dryas. This finding strengthens proposals that it may have derived directly from the Havelte stage of the Hamburg culture.

What is the significance of the Alt Duvenstedt find site for understanding the early stages of the Ahrensburg culture?

The Ahrensburgian find layer at Alt Duvenstedt has been dated to the very late Allerød period. This suggests it might represent an early stage of the Ahrensburgian culture, potentially corresponding to or overlapping with the Bromme culture in the north, and indicating its presence before the Younger Dryas.

What does the citation regarding the Isles of Orkney suggest about the Ahrensburg culture's reach?

The citation mentioning the Isles of Orkney indicates that the Ahrensburg culture extended its reach significantly northward, even into the northernmost parts of Scotland. This demonstrates a broad geographical distribution and adaptability of the culture.

What is the 'Havelte phase' mentioned in relation to the Hamburgian culture?

The Havelte phase is described as a younger dating within the Hamburgian techno-complex. It is sometimes interpreted as a northwestern phenomenon, possibly oriented towards the former coastline, and is considered a potential precursor to the Ahrensburg culture.

How did the extinction of megafauna influence the subsistence strategies of cultures like the Ahrensburg?

The extinction of megafauna, such as mammoths, during the Late Paleolithic provided a strong incentive for hunter-gatherer groups like the Ahrensburg culture to diversify their subsistence strategies. This included a greater exploitation of other resources, such as maritime resources, to sustain their populations.

What does the text imply about the relationship between climatic changes and cultural shifts during the Late Paleolithic/early Mesolithic?

The text strongly implies a direct relationship between climatic changes and cultural shifts. For instance, the northward migrations coincided with warmer periods like the Bølling and Allerød events, while the colder Younger Dryas also saw continued habitation. Furthermore, rapid climatic change is cited as a stimulus for swift cultural change and autochthonous development, as seen with the Hensbacka group.

What is the significance of the 'tanged points' found in Lithuania in the context of cultural development?

The introduction of massive and smaller 'tanged points' in Lithuania is noted as a new development. Within the Bromme culture, this technology is proposed to be an innovation derived from tanged Havelte groups, suggesting a potential link or influence on the development of subsequent cultures like the Ahrensburg.

What does the term 'autochthonous development' suggest about the Hensbacka group?

The term 'autochthonous development' suggests that the Hensbacka group in Scandinavia evolved from existing local populations and traditions, rather than being the result of new migrations. This implies that the cultural changes observed were driven by internal factors, such as adaptation to rapid environmental shifts.

What evidence exists for the use of fishing by Late Paleolithic cultures?

The discovery of fish-hooks in Allerød layers emphasizes the importance of fishing in the Late Paleolithic. This indicates that fishing was a significant subsistence activity for cultures during this period, alongside hunting.

How did the Ahrensburg culture's territory relate to contemporary coastlines?

The Ahrensburg culture's territory included vast stretches of land that are now submerged beneath the North and Baltic Seas. This is because during the Younger Dryas, the coastline extended much further north than it does today, exposing these areas for habitation.

What is the 'type site' for the Ahrensburg culture, and what does this term signify?

The type site for the Ahrensburg culture is Ahrensburg, a town in Germany. A 'type site' in archaeology is a location where artifacts characteristic of a particular archaeological culture were first discovered or are most representative, serving as a reference point for identifying that culture elsewhere.

What does the text suggest about the relationship between the Ahrensburg culture and the 'Holocene climatic optimum'?

The text mentions that during the Holocene climatic optimum, increased biomass led to intensified foraging, development of inter-group contacts, and the initiation of agriculture. While the Ahrensburg culture primarily existed before this optimum, its later stages might have transitioned into this period of increased resource availability and societal complexity.

What is the significance of the 'Magdalenian' culture in relation to the Ahrensburg culture's origins?

The Magdalenian culture is mentioned as a root for the Hamburgian culture, which in turn is considered a potential predecessor or influence on the Ahrensburg culture. Specifically, tanged point cultures like Bromme are thought to be based on the Magdalenian tradition, suggesting an indirect lineage.

What does the phrase 'cultural fragmentation process' imply regarding the Hensbacka group?

The phrase 'cultural fragmentation process' suggests that the broader Ahrensburgian tradition, when it spread or influenced regions like Scandinavia, did not remain monolithic. Instead, it adapted and diversified into distinct regional variations, such as the Hensbacka group, reflecting local environmental conditions and adaptations.

What is the 'Bromme culture', and how is it chronologically positioned relative to the Ahrensburg culture?

The Bromme culture is found in the southern and southeastern Baltic region and is dated to the second half of the Allerød and the early cold Dryas III period. While traditionally viewed as a predecessor to the Ahrensburg culture, new information suggests the Ahrensburgian techno-complex may have started earlier, potentially predating the Younger Dryas, complicating a simple linear succession.

What does the text suggest about the 'typological chronology' of the Grensk culture?

The text states that the exact typological chronology of the Grensk culture is still unclear. However, it notes that while proposed as a direct originator of the Ahrensburgian culture, the Grensk culture has its roots more defined in the local Mammoth Hunters' culture.

What is the 'Fertile Crescent' mentioned in the context of Upper Paleolithic cultures?

The Fertile Crescent is mentioned as a region where several Upper Paleolithic cultures, such as the Emiran, Ahmarian, Baradostian, Aurignacian, Zarzian, Kebaran, Trialetian, Natufian, and Khiamian, were present. This highlights the diversity of cultural developments in different geographical areas during the Upper Paleolithic.

What does the presence of 'circles of stone' at Stellmoor suggest about the Ahrensburg people's dwellings?

The circles of stone found at Stellmoor are interpreted as the foundations for hide teepees. This indicates that the Ahrensburg people utilized portable, tent-like structures, consistent with a nomadic lifestyle.

What is the significance of the Ahrensburg culture's association with the 'Younger Dryas'?

The association of the Ahrensburg culture with the Younger Dryas places it within a period of significant climatic cooling and environmental change. This context likely shaped their hunting strategies, nomadic patterns, and the types of resources they exploited, such as reindeer in tundra environments.

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What Was the Ahrensburg Culture?

Defining the Era

The Ahrensburg culture, also known as the Ahrensburgian, represents a significant technocomplex of the Late Upper Paleolithic. It flourished approximately 12,900 to 11,700 years Before Present (BP). This period coincided with the Younger Dryas, the final cold phase of the last glacial period (Weichsel glaciation). The resultant environmental shifts led to widespread deforestation and the establishment of a tundra biome characterized by sparse arctic white birch and rowan trees.

Primary Subsistence

The archaeological evidence strongly indicates that the Ahrensburgian people were highly mobile nomadic hunter-gatherers. Their subsistence strategy was heavily reliant on the hunting of wild reindeer, which were abundant in the tundra environment. This specialization shaped their settlement patterns and technological development.

Technological Innovations

The Ahrensburg culture is notable for its association with the earliest definitive evidence of the bow and arrow. While the exact origins of this technology may predate this period, the Ahrensburgian sites provide concrete proof of its use. Their toolkit primarily consisted of flint artifacts, including characteristic tanged points, which were crucial for their hunting practices.

Geographical Scope

North-Central Europe

The Ahrensburg culture's reach extended across north-central Europe. Archaeological finds have been documented in regions including southern and western Scandinavia, the North German Plain, and western Poland. Significantly, this area also encompassed vast tracts of land now submerged beneath the North and Baltic Seas, as the coastline extended much further north during the Younger Dryas period.

Northernmost Extent

Evidence suggests the Ahrensburgian presence reached as far north as the Orkney Islands in northern Scotland, indicating a remarkable capacity for adaptation and mobility across diverse and challenging landscapes during the Late Glacial period.

Chronological Context

The Younger Dryas

The Ahrensburg culture is intrinsically linked to the Younger Dryas chronozone (approximately 12,900 to 11,700 BP). This period was characterized by a rapid and severe return to glacial conditions, significantly impacting flora and fauna and necessitating specific adaptations for human survival. The culture represents a crucial phase in the transition from the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic era.

Cultural Succession

The Ahrensburgian culture emerged following the decline of earlier Late Upper Paleolithic cultures, notably the Hamburg culture and the Federmesser culture. It was subsequently succeeded by the early Mesolithic cultures of the region, such as the Maglemosian culture in southern Scandinavia and the Swiderian culture in northeastern Europe, marking a significant shift in technological and subsistence strategies as the climate warmed.

Cultural Origins and Relationships

Predecessors and Contemporaries

The Ahrensburg culture is understood to have developed from earlier technocomplexes. While the precise lineage is debated, strong connections are drawn to the Hamburg culture, particularly its Havelte phase, and the Federmesser culture. Some scholars propose that the Ahrensburgian techno-complex may have already begun before the Younger Dryas, possibly deriving directly from the Havelte stage of the Hamburg culture. The Bromme culture, found in the southern Baltic region, shares similarities and is often discussed in relation to Ahrensburgian origins, with some theories suggesting a derivation from Bromme groups or even the Grensk culture in the Dnieper basin.

Transition to the Mesolithic

The cultural landscape of Northern Europe during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene was dynamic. As glacial conditions receded and the climate ameliorated, new subsistence strategies emerged. The Ahrensburg culture, with its focus on reindeer hunting and specific lithic technologies, represents a key stage in this transition, eventually giving way to cultures that increasingly exploited maritime resources and developed new toolkits suited to the post-glacial environment.

Key Archaeological Sites

Type Site and Discoveries

The culture is named after a tunnel valley near Ahrensburg, located northeast of Hamburg in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Excavations at sites within this valley, specifically Meiendorf, Stellmoor, and Borneck, yielded significant Ahrensburgian layers, primarily dating to the Younger Dryas. The site of Alt Duvenstedt provides evidence of an earlier stage, potentially corresponding to the Bromme culture, suggesting a complex overlap and development.

Stellmoor: A Window into Life

The Stellmoor settlement offers remarkable insights into Ahrensburgian life. It appears to have been a seasonal camp, likely occupied during October, with evidence of approximately 650 reindeer remains. Archaeologists discovered well-preserved pine arrow shafts, characteristic of the culture's distinctive tanged flint arrowheads. Intact reindeer skeletons found with arrowheads embedded in their chests suggest possible ritualistic sacrifices. The presence of stone circles is interpreted as the foundations for hide teepees, indicating the nomadic lifestyle and shelter construction techniques of the period.

Tools and Technology

Lithic Assemblages

The Ahrensburgian lithic industry is characterized by its efficiency and specialization. Key artifacts include finely crafted flint tools. The most diagnostic are the characteristic tanged points, often referred to as "Ahrensburgian points," which were hafted onto arrows. These points, along with scrapers, burins, and blades, formed the core of their tool kit, optimized for the hunting of large game like reindeer.

The lithic technology of the Ahrensburg culture is recognized for its refined techniques:

Tanged Points: Distinctive arrowheads with a tang for hafting.
Scrapers: Used for processing hides and wood.
Burins: Tools designed for engraving or working bone and antler.
Blades: Sharp-edged flakes used for cutting.
Microburins: Used for creating notches on tools or for producing smaller blades.

The production methods often involved pressure flaking to achieve sharp edges and precise forms.

The Bow and Arrow

The Ahrensburg culture provides some of the earliest conclusive evidence for the use of the bow and arrow. The discovery of preserved arrow shafts made from pine, found alongside tanged flint points at sites like Stellmoor, confirms the sophisticated projectile technology employed by these hunters. This innovation offered significant advantages in hunting, allowing for greater range and accuracy compared to earlier spear-throwing techniques.

Lifestyle and Adaptation

Nomadic Existence

The Ahrensburgian people were highly nomadic, following the migratory patterns of their primary prey, the reindeer. Their settlements, such as the seasonal camp at Stellmoor, were likely temporary structures, possibly hide teepees, indicated by the circular arrangements of stones found at the site. This mobility was essential for survival in the challenging, resource-scarce environment of the Late Glacial period.

Environmental Context

The landscape inhabited by the Ahrensburg culture was a cold tundra, sparsely populated with hardy vegetation like birch and rowan. This environment shaped their hunting strategies, tool development, and overall way of life. Their ability to thrive in such conditions highlights remarkable resilience and adaptation skills during a period of significant climatic instability.

Ritualistic Practices

Evidence from sites like Stellmoor suggests potential ritualistic behavior. The discovery of reindeer skeletons with arrowheads embedded in them, alongside the presence of stone circles, has led archaeologists to hypothesize about symbolic or ritualistic practices, possibly related to hunting success or spiritual beliefs. These findings offer glimpses into the complex cognitive and social lives of these ancient peoples.

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References

Egidijus Å ataviÄius, The Final Palaeolithic Cultures in Lithuania Archaeologia Lituana vol. 6 (2005)

Otte M. The northwestern European plain around 18,000 BP. in Soffer O, Gamble C (eds) The world at 18,000 BP London: Unwin Hyman, 1990, Vol 1, pp. 54â68.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Ahrensburg culture Wikipedia page

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This educational resource was generated by an Artificial Intelligence, drawing upon scholarly information derived from publicly available data. Its purpose is to facilitate understanding for higher education students, particularly those pursuing Master's level studies in archaeology, anthropology, or related fields.

This content is for educational purposes only and does not constitute professional archaeological interpretation or advice. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy based on the provided source material, interpretations of prehistoric cultures can be complex and subject to ongoing academic debate. Always consult peer-reviewed literature and engage with expert analysis for comprehensive understanding.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any interpretations or actions taken based on the information presented herein. It is recommended to cross-reference information with primary archaeological reports and scholarly consensus.

Echoes of the Ice Age

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What Was the Ahrensburg Culture? 🌍

⏳ Defining the Era

🦌 Primary Subsistence

🏹 Technological Innovations

Geographical Scope 🗺️

📍 North-Central Europe

🏴󠁧󠁢󠁳󠁣󠁴󠁿 Northernmost Extent

Chronological Context ⏳

🕰️ The Younger Dryas

➡️ Cultural Succession

Cultural Origins and Relationships 📜

🔗 Predecessors and Contemporaries

🔄 Transition to the Mesolithic

Key Archaeological Sites 📍

🏛️ Type Site and Discoveries

🦴 Stellmoor: A Window into Life

Tools and Technology 🏹

✨ Lithic Assemblages

🎯 The Bow and Arrow

Lifestyle and Adaptation 🛖

🚶 Nomadic Existence

🌿 Environmental Context

🙏 Ritualistic Practices

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📜 Important Notice for Learners

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What Was the Ahrensburg Culture?

Defining the Era

Primary Subsistence

Technological Innovations

Geographical Scope

North-Central Europe

Northernmost Extent

Chronological Context

The Younger Dryas

Cultural Succession

Cultural Origins and Relationships

Predecessors and Contemporaries

Transition to the Mesolithic

Key Archaeological Sites

Type Site and Discoveries

Stellmoor: A Window into Life

Tools and Technology

Lithic Assemblages

The Bow and Arrow

Lifestyle and Adaptation

Nomadic Existence

Environmental Context

Ritualistic Practices

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice for Learners