What is the literal meaning of the Afrikaans word 'apartheid'?

The Afrikaans word 'apartheid' literally translates to 'apartness' or 'the state of being apart,' signifying the policy of separation between racial groups.

What were the two main categories of apartheid policies?

Apartheid was broadly divided into 'petty apartheid,' which involved the segregation of public facilities and social events, and 'grand apartheid,' which focused on strictly separating housing and employment opportunities based on race.

Which were the four main racial classifications defined by the Population Registration Act of 1950?

The Population Registration Act of 1950 classified all South Africans into one of four racial groups: 'Black,' 'White,' 'Coloured,' and 'Indian.' The latter two categories included several sub-classifications.

How did the Population Registration Act of 1950 classify individuals?

The act classified individuals based on appearance, known ancestry, socioeconomic status, and cultural lifestyle. This often led to arbitrary decisions, sometimes separating families into different racial groups.

What was the purpose of the Group Areas Act of 1950?

The Group Areas Act of 1950 aimed to enforce residential segregation by determining where people could live based on their racial classification, which later served as a basis for forced removals.

How many Black Africans were forcibly removed from their homes due to apartheid legislation between 1960 and 1983?

Between 1960 and 1983, approximately 3.5 million Black Africans were forcibly relocated as a result of apartheid legislation, often to designated 'homelands' or Bantustans.

What were Bantustans?

Bantustans were territories designated by the apartheid government as 'homelands' for Black ethnic groups, intended to segregate them from white South Africa and eventually lead to nominal independence.

Which were the first four Bantustans to be declared nominally independent states?

The first four Bantustans declared independent by the South African government were Transkei (1976), Bophuthatswana (1977), Venda (1979), and Ciskei (1981), collectively known as the TBVC states.

What was the significance of the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act of 1949?

The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act was the first apartheid law, making it illegal for people of different races to marry each other.

How did the Immorality Amendment Act of 1950 contribute to apartheid's segregationist policies?

The Immorality Amendment Act of 1950 prohibited sexual relations between White people and people of other races, reinforcing the segregationist agenda by criminalizing interracial intimacy.

What did the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act of 1953 mandate?

The Reservation of Separate Amenities Act allowed for the segregation of public facilities, including beaches, buses, hospitals, and parks, often with signs indicating 'whites only'.

How did the Suppression of Communism Act of 1950 contribute to suppressing opposition to apartheid?

The Suppression of Communism Act broadly defined Communism to include any opposition to government policy, allowing the government to ban organizations, impose restrictions, and label opponents as Communists.

What was the purpose of the Bantu Education Act of 1953?

The Bantu Education Act established a separate and inferior education system for Black South Africans, designed to prepare them for lives as a laboring class and reinforce the ideology of separate development.

How did the apartheid government attempt to disenfranchise Coloured voters in the Cape?

The government passed legislation, notably the Separate Representation of Voters Act in 1956, which transferred Coloured voters from the common roll to a separate roll and eventually abolished their parliamentary seats, effectively removing their voting rights.

What was the 'Total Onslaught' concept?

The 'Total Onslaught' was a concept used by the apartheid government to frame the struggle against Communism and Black nationalism as an existential threat, justifying increased militarization and security measures.

How did the apartheid government militarize South African society?

The government implemented compulsory military service for White men, organized paramilitary formations in schools, and significantly increased defense budgets, embedding military values into society.

What was the significance of the Sharpeville massacre in 1960?

The Sharpeville massacre, where police killed 69 unarmed protesters demonstrating against pass laws, led to a state of emergency, the banning of the ANC and PAC, and increased international condemnation of apartheid.

What was the Soweto uprising in 1976?

The Soweto uprising was a student protest against the imposition of Afrikaans as the language of instruction, which was met with brutal police violence, resulting in hundreds of deaths and sparking widespread international outrage.

What role did the United Democratic Front (UDF) play in the anti-apartheid movement?

The UDF, formed in 1983, was a broad anti-apartheid coalition that coordinated domestic resistance through peaceful protests, boycotts, and campaigns, providing a legal platform for opposition within South Africa.

How did international opposition manifest against apartheid?

International opposition included UN resolutions, arms embargoes, economic sanctions, disinvestment campaigns, sporting boycotts, and cultural boycotts, all aimed at isolating South Africa and pressuring it to dismantle apartheid.

What was the Commonwealth's stance on apartheid?

The Commonwealth of Nations opposed apartheid, advocating for economic sanctions and eventually leading to South Africa's withdrawal from the organization in 1961 due to opposition from African and Asian member states.

What was the significance of the Gleneagles Agreement of 1977?

The Gleneagles Agreement was a Commonwealth initiative that committed member states to boycotting sports teams and events involving South Africa, further isolating the country internationally.

How did the UN Security Council respond to the Sharpeville massacre?

Following the Sharpeville massacre, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 134, calling on South Africa to abandon its racial discrimination policies, marking the first time the council agreed on concerted action against the apartheid regime.

What was the 'Outward-Looking' policy initiated by B.J. Vorster?

B.J. Vorster's 'Outward-Looking' policy aimed to improve South Africa's international relations and reputation, including engaging with other African states, despite maintaining the apartheid system.

How did sport become a tool in the fight against apartheid?

Apartheid's segregationist sports policies led to international isolation, with sporting boycotts serving as a significant form of protest that pressured the white population and raised global awareness of the regime's injustices.

What was the impact of the cultural boycott on South Africa?

Cultural boycotts requested artists not to perform or exhibit in South Africa, contributing to the country's international isolation and raising consciousness among South Africans about global condemnation of apartheid.

How did the Cold War influence South Africa's internal and foreign policies?

The apartheid government used the Cold War context to portray itself as a bulwark against Communism, justifying its security measures ('Total Strategy') and receiving support from some Western nations who viewed it as an anti-communist ally.

What were the key reforms introduced by P.W. Botha's government in the 1980s?

Botha's reforms included the establishment of the Tricameral Parliament, the abolition of pass laws, the legalization of Black labor unions, and granting property rights in urban areas, though these measures were seen as insufficient by many.

What was the significance of Nelson Mandela's release from prison in 1990?

Nelson Mandela's release after 27 years marked a pivotal moment in the negotiations to end apartheid, symbolizing the possibility of a peaceful transition to a democratic South Africa.

What was the role of the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA)?

CODESA was a multi-party negotiation forum established in 1991 to facilitate the transition to a democratic South Africa, aiming to create a new constitution and a transitional government.

What was the outcome of the 1992 Whites-only referendum called by F.W. de Klerk?

The referendum resulted in a 69% 'Yes' vote in favor of continuing negotiations, strengthening de Klerk's mandate and the National Party's position in the transition process.

How did the assassination of Chris Hani in 1993 affect the transition process?

Chris Hani's assassination by an anti-Communist refugee with links to the AWB threatened to plunge South Africa into chaos but ultimately spurred the main political parties to accelerate negotiations for a settlement.

What is the legacy of apartheid regarding economic inequality in South Africa?

Despite the end of apartheid, South Africa continues to struggle with severe economic inequality, with Black South Africans still facing significant disadvantages in wealth, income, and ownership, making it one of the most unequal countries globally.

What is the meaning of 'crime of apartheid' in international law?

The 'crime of apartheid' is defined in international law, including the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, as a crime against humanity, referring to systematic institutionalized racial domination and oppression.

How has the term 'apartheid' been applied to situations outside of South Africa?

The term 'apartheid' has been used by Palestinian rights advocates and human rights organizations to describe Israeli policies in the occupied territories and discriminatory practices against Palestinian citizens of Israel, though this application is contested.

What is 'social apartheid'?

Social apartheid refers to segregation based on class or economic status, distinct from racial segregation, and can encompass discrimination based on gender ('gender apartheid') or religion ('religious apartheid').

What was the significance of the 1994 general election in South Africa?

The 1994 general election, held with universal suffrage, marked the official end of apartheid and the establishment of a democratic government, with Nelson Mandela becoming the first Black president.

How did F.W. de Klerk contribute to the dismantling of apartheid?

As President, F.W. de Klerk initiated key reforms, including repealing discriminatory laws, lifting the ban on anti-apartheid organizations like the ANC, releasing political prisoners like Nelson Mandela, and engaging in negotiations for a democratic South Africa.

What was the role of the Tomlinson Commission in relation to apartheid?

The Tomlinson Commission of 1954 justified apartheid and the homeland system, recommending additional land for Bantustans, though these recommendations were largely not implemented by the government.

How did the apartheid government attempt to control the movement of Black South Africans?

The government enforced strict pass laws, requiring Black individuals to carry identity documents ('dompas') and permits to reside or work in urban areas, with severe penalties for violations.

What was the impact of apartheid on women in South Africa?

Black and Coloured women faced a 'triple yoke of oppression' due to gender, race, and class discrimination, experiencing limited job opportunities, low wages, family separation due to pass laws, and restricted property rights.

What was the 'Tar Baby Option' in US foreign policy towards South Africa?

The 'Tar Baby Option' was a policy pursued by the Nixon administration that maintained close relations with the apartheid government, prioritizing anti-communist strategic interests over opposition to apartheid.

How did the South African government justify its 'Total Strategy'?

The government justified its militarization and security measures under 'Total Strategy' by framing the struggle against anti-apartheid movements as part of a larger global conflict against Communism.

What was the significance of the Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith in 1974?

Signed by Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Harry Schwarz, the Mahlabatini Declaration outlined principles for peaceful power transition and equality, serving as a blueprint for a multi-racial South Africa and influencing political realignments.

What were the 'honorary white' classifications?

The 'honorary white' classification was ambiguously granted to certain non-White groups, such as immigrants from Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, and their descendants, allowing them some privileges similar to Whites due to diplomatic and economic relations.

How did the apartheid system affect the education of Black South Africans?

The Bantu Education Act of 1953 created a segregated and inferior education system for Black students, designed to limit their opportunities and prepare them for subservient roles in society.

What was the 'Rooi Gevaar' and 'Swart Gevaar' in the context of apartheid politics?

'Rooi Gevaar' (Red Danger) referred to the perceived threat of Communism, while 'Swart Gevaar' (Black Danger) referred to the perceived threat of Black nationalism and majority rule, both used by the apartheid regime to justify its policies.

What role did the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) play after apartheid?

The TRC was established to investigate human rights violations committed during apartheid, offering amnesty to perpetrators who disclosed the truth and providing a platform for victims to share their experiences.

How did the apartheid government attempt to manage the economy while maintaining segregation?

The economy relied heavily on cheap Black labor, with policies designed to segregate labor markets and control the movement of Black workers. However, economic realities often led to circumvention of apartheid laws on a large scale.

Apartheid Wiki: Apartheid: A System of Segregation and Its Enduring Impact

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Defining Apartheid

System of Segregation

Apartheid, meaning "separateness" in Afrikaans, was a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1948 until the early 1990s. It ensured the political, social, and economic dominance of the white minority population.

Racial Hierarchy

The system established a strict racial hierarchy: White citizens held the highest status, followed by Indians, Coloureds, and Black Africans. This classification determined access to rights, opportunities, and social standing.

Global Impact

Apartheid sparked significant international condemnation and led to global social movements and sanctions against South Africa. Its legacy continues to shape the nation's socio-economic landscape.

Historical Roots

Colonial Foundations

Racial discrimination predates 1948, tracing back to the Dutch East India Company's establishment in 1652. Early pass laws, colonial governance under Roman-Dutch law, and the indentured servitude system following the abolition of slavery laid groundwork for segregation.

Legislative Precedents

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, various acts limited non-white freedoms, including franchise restrictions in the Cape Colony, land acts, urban segregation laws, and the exclusion of Black workers from skilled trades, culminating in the Union of South Africa's discriminatory policies.

Ideological Development

Afrikaner nationalism and Calvinist thought contributed to the ideology of racial separation. Commissions like Sauer and Fagan debated segregation, with the National Party ultimately adopting a platform of strict racial separation, formalized as "Apartheid," for the 1948 election.

Legislative Framework

Prohibition Acts

Key early laws included the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949) and the Immorality Amendment Act (1950), criminalizing interracial relationships and marriages, enforcing "petty apartheid."

Classification & Areas

The Population Registration Act (1950) classified all citizens racially, while the Group Areas Act (1950) designated separate residential and commercial areas for each race, leading to mass forced removals.

Control & Segregation

Pass Laws restricted Black movement, requiring permits for urban areas. The Reservation of Separate Amenities Act (1953) mandated segregation in all public facilities, often providing vastly inferior services for non-whites.

Education & Control

The Bantu Education Act (1953) established a separate, inferior education system for Black children. Other acts suppressed dissent (Suppression of Communism Act, 1950; Public Safety Act, 1953) and controlled labor relations.

The Bantustan System

Territorial Segregation

The "grand apartheid" strategy involved creating ethnically defined "homelands" or Bantustans. This policy aimed to strip Black South Africans of their citizenship, confining them to designated, often economically unviable, territories.

Nominally Independent States

Twenty homelands were allocated. Four were declared nominally independent (Transkei, Bophutatswana, Venda, Ciskei - the TBVC states), though they lacked genuine sovereignty and international recognition beyond South Africa.

Forced Relocations

Millions were forcibly removed from their homes under this policy, often relocated to designated homelands or segregated townships like Soweto, disrupting communities and families.

Life Under Apartheid

Daily Segregation

Apartheid permeated daily life. Public spaces, transportation, healthcare, education, and recreation were strictly segregated. Signs like "Whites Only" were common, enforcing a rigid social order.

Economic Disparity

Economic opportunities were heavily skewed. Black workers were relegated to low-paying jobs, subject to pass laws and restrictions on employment in white areas. Trade unions were segregated, hindering collective bargaining.

Residential Segregation

The Group Areas Act dictated where people could live based on race. Forced removals displaced hundreds of thousands, physically separating communities and creating lasting spatial inequalities.

Opposition and Resistance

Internal Struggle

Domestic resistance, led by organizations like the ANC and PAC, employed various tactics, including protests, civil disobedience (e.g., Defiance Campaign), and eventually armed struggle. This faced brutal state repression, including mass arrests and bannings.

International Pressure

The international community condemned apartheid, imposing economic sanctions, arms embargoes, and cultural boycotts. The anti-apartheid movement became a major global political force.

Key Events

Significant events like the Sharpeville massacre (1960), the Rivonia Trial (1963-64), and the Soweto Uprising (1976) galvanized both internal resistance and international opposition.

The Dismantling of Apartheid

Negotiations

Intensified internal resistance and international pressure led to negotiations between the National Party government and the African National Congress (ANC) in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Reforms and Repeal

Key reforms included the release of political prisoners like Nelson Mandela in 1990 and the repeal of major apartheid legislation by June 1991.

Transition to Democracy

The process culminated in the first multi-racial democratic elections in April 1994, marking the official end of apartheid and the establishment of a new constitutional order.

Enduring Impact

Socio-Economic Inequality

Despite the end of formal apartheid, its legacy persists in deep-seated socio-economic inequalities, particularly in wealth distribution, education, and housing, disproportionately affecting the Black population.

Spatial Planning

The physical separation enforced by apartheid continues to influence urban geography, with former townships often remaining economically marginalized and physically separated from city centers.

Reconciliation and Justice

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) aimed to address past human rights abuses. However, debates continue regarding restorative justice, reparations, and achieving full societal transformation.

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References

South West Africa existed as a colonial territory under the control of the South African administration.

Shore, Megan. Religion and Conflict Resolution: Christianity and South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Ashgate Publishing, 2009. p. 36

Nancy L. Clarkson & William H. Worger. South Africa: The Rise and Fall of . Routledge, 2013. Chapter 3: The Basis of Apartheid.

Gish, Steven (2000). Alfred B. Xuma: African, American, South African. New York University Press. p. 8.

Hoiberg, Dale; Ramchandani, Indu (2000). Students' Britannica India, Volumes 1â5. Popular Prakashan. p. 142.

{better source needed} Nojeim, Michael J. (2004). Gandhi and King: the power of nonviolent resistance. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 127.

Ambrosio, Thomas (2002). Ethnic identity groups and U.S. foreign policy. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 56â57.

Nigel, Worden, The making of modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2000) p. 3.

Philip Boner, Peter, Delius, Deborah, Posel, "The Shaping of Apartheid, contradiction, continuity and popular struggle", The Worlds Knowledge, (1993) pp. 1â47 (p. 6.)

Paul, Maylam, "The Rise and Decline of Urban Apartheid in South Africa", African Affairs, 89.354(1990) pp. 57â84 (p. 54.)

P. Brits, Modern South Africa: Afrikaner power, the politics of race, and resistance, 1902 to the 1970s (Pretoria, University of South Africa Press, 2007), p37

O'Meara, Dan. Forty Lost Years : The National Party and the Politics of the South African State, 1948â1994. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1996.

Ungar, Sanford (1989). Africa: the people and politics of an emerging continent. Simon & Schuster. p. 224.

Goldin, Ian (1987). Making race: the politics and economics of Coloured identity in South Africa. Longman. p. xxvi.

Besteman, Catherine Lowe (2008). Transforming Cape Town. University of California Press. p. 6.

Van der Ross, R. E.; Marais, Johannes Stephanus (1986). The rise and decline of apartheid: a study of political movements among the Coloured people of South Africa, 1880â1985. Tafelberg. p. 255.

Witz, Leslie (2003). Apartheid's festival: contesting South Africa's national pasts. Indiana University Press. p. 134.

Wilson, Monica Hunter; Thompson, Leonard Monteath (1969). The Oxford history of South Africa, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. p. 405.

Mountain, Alan (2003). The first people of the Cape: a look at their history and the impact of colonialism on the Cape's indigenous people. New Africa Books. p. 72.

Du Pre, R H. (1994). Separate but Unequal â The 'Coloured' People of South Africa â A Political History. Jonathan Ball Publishers, Johannesburg. pp. 134â139.

Booth, Douglas (1998). The race game: sport and politics in South Africa. Routledge. p. 89.

Thompson, Paul Singer (1990). Natalians first: separatism in South Africa, 1909â1961. Southern Book Publishers. p. 167.

Lacour-Gayet, Robert (1977). A history of South Africa. Cassell. p. 311.

Evans, Ivan. Bureaucracy and Race: Native Administration in South Africa. Berkeley: U of California, 1997. N. pag. Print.

Amisi, Baruti, and Simphiwe Nojiyeza. Access to Decent Sanitation in South Africa: The Challenges of Eradicating the Bucket System Baruti Amisi n. pag. Feb. 2008. Web.

Those who had the money to travel or emigrate were not given full passports; instead, travel documents were issued.

On apartheid transport see Pirie, G.H. Travelling under apartheid. In D M Smith (ed.), The Apartheid City and Beyond: Urbanisation and Social Change in South Africa. Routledge, London (1992), pp. 172â181.

Patric Tariq Mellet "Intro", Cape Slavery Heritage. Retrieved 24 May 2011.

Bet and board in the new South Africa. (legalisation of gambling could lead to growth of casinos, lotteries)(Brief Article) The Economist (US) | 5 August 1995

Apartheid mythology and symbolism. desegregated and re-invented in the service of nation building in the new South Africa: the covenant and the battle of Blood/Ncome River

(Les Payne of Newsday said at least 850 murders were documented) Elsabe Brink; Gandhi Malungane; Steve Lebelo; Dumisani Ntshangase; Sue Krige, Soweto 16 June 1976, 2001, 9

Sowell, Thomas (2004, 2009). Applied Economics: Thinking Beyond Stage One. Second Edition, NY: Basic Books. Ch. 7: The Economics of Discrimination.

Ampiah, Kweku (1997). The dynamics of Japan's relations with Africa: South Africa, Tanzania and Nigeria. CRC Press. p. 147.

Geldenhuys, Deon (1990). Isolated states: a comparative analysis. Cambridge University Press. p. 274.

Royal African Society (1970). African affairs, Volumes 69â70. Oxford University Press. p. 178.

Rubin, Leslie; Weinstein, Brian (1977). Introduction to African politics: a continental approach. Praeger. p. 129.

Klotz, Audie (1999). Norms in International Relations: The Struggle Against Apartheid. Cornell University Press. p. 77.

Bangura, Abdul Karim (2004). Sweden vs apartheid: putting morality ahead of profit. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 104.

Grieg, Charlotte (2008). Cold Blooded Killings: Hits, Assassinations, and Near Misses That Shook the World. Booksales Inc Remainders. p. 43.

Von Wielligh, N. & von Wielligh-Steyn, L. (2015). The Bomb: South Africa's Nuclear Weapons Programme. Pretoria: Litera.

Purkitt, Helen E.; Burgess, Stephen Franklin (2005). South Africa's weapons of mass destruction. Indiana University Press. p. 152.

Watson, Wendy (2007). Brick by brick: an informal guide to the history of South Africa. New Africa Books.

Fox, William; Fourie, Marius; Van Wyk, Belinda (1998). Police Management in South Africa. Juta and Company Limited. p. 167.

Legum, Colin (1989). Africa contemporary record: annual survey and documents, Volume 20. Africana Pub. Co. p. 668.

McKendrick, Brian; Hoffmann, Wilman (1990). People and violence in South Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 62.

Blond, Rebecca; Fitzpatrick, Mary (2004). South Africa, Lesotho & Swaziland. Lonely Planet. p. 40.

Philip Boner, Peter, Delius, Deborah, Posel, "The Shaping of Apartheid, contradiction, continuity and popular struggle", The Worlds Knowledge, (1993) pp. 1â47 (p. 7.)

Knox, Colin; Quirk, PÃ¡draic (2000). Peacebuilding in Northern Ireland, Israel and South Africa: transition, transformation and reconciliation. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 151.

Taylor & Francis Group (2004). Europa World Year Book 2, Book 2. Taylor & Francis. p. 3841.

"Cops fight crowds at S. Africa elections." Philadelphia Daily News. 28 August 1984.

South Africa: Adapt or Die. Time.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Apartheid Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This content was generated by an AI based on historical data and is intended for educational purposes. It is a summary and analysis of the complex history of Apartheid.

This is not historical consultancy or legal advice. The information provided is not exhaustive and should not substitute consultation with qualified historians, sociologists, or legal experts. Always consult primary sources and academic research for a comprehensive understanding.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors, omissions, or actions taken based on the information provided.

Apartheid: A System of Segregation

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining Apartheid ⚖️

📜 System of Segregation

hierarchy Racial Hierarchy

🌍 Global Impact

Historical Roots 🌱

🏛️ Colonial Foundations

⚖️ Legislative Precedents

💡 Ideological Development

Legislative Framework 📜

🚫 Prohibition Acts

🏷️ Classification & Areas

🚶 Control & Segregation

🎓 Education & Control

The Bantustan System 🏞️

🗺️ Territorial Segregation

🏢 Nominally Independent States

🏠 Forced Relocations

Life Under Apartheid 👥

🚫 Daily Segregation

💼 Economic Disparity

🏠 Residential Segregation

Opposition and Resistance ✊

✊ Internal Struggle

🌍 International Pressure

⚖️ Key Events

The Dismantling of Apartheid 🕊️

🤝 Negotiations

🔓 Reforms and Repeal

🗳️ Transition to Democracy

Enduring Impact ⏳

📊 Socio-Economic Inequality

🏘️ Spatial Planning

⚖️ Reconciliation and Justice

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Apartheid

System of Segregation

Racial Hierarchy

Global Impact

Historical Roots

Colonial Foundations

Legislative Precedents

Ideological Development

Legislative Framework

Prohibition Acts

Classification & Areas

Control & Segregation

Education & Control

The Bantustan System

Territorial Segregation

Nominally Independent States

Forced Relocations

Life Under Apartheid

Daily Segregation

Economic Disparity

Residential Segregation

Opposition and Resistance

Internal Struggle

International Pressure

Key Events

The Dismantling of Apartheid

Negotiations

Reforms and Repeal

Transition to Democracy

Enduring Impact

Socio-Economic Inequality

Spatial Planning

Reconciliation and Justice

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice