What is the fundamental definition of an astronomical object?

An astronomical object, also known as a celestial object, stellar object, or heavenly body, is defined as a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists within the observable universe. The terms 'object' and 'body' are often used interchangeably in astronomy, but there's a distinction: an astronomical body refers to a single, cohesive, tightly bound entity, whereas an astronomical object can be a more complex structure that may comprise multiple bodies or substructures.

Can you provide examples that differentiate between an astronomical object and an astronomical body?

Certainly. Examples of astronomical objects, which are complex structures, include planetary systems, star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies. Conversely, astronomical bodies, which are single, tightly bound entities, include asteroids, moons, planets, and stars. A comet can be considered both: its frozen nucleus is a body, while the entire comet with its coma and tail is an object.

When did astronomical objects like stars and galaxies plausibly begin to emerge in the universe?

According to NASA astrophysicists, the earliest astronomical objects likely began to form approximately 13.6 billion years ago. This emergence occurred around 200 million years after the Big Bang, when gravity began to coalesce light into the first stars and galaxies.

How did early cultures utilize astronomical observations in their daily lives?

Early cultures observed astronomical objects like stars and planets for practical purposes. They used these celestial bodies for navigation over long distances, to track seasonal changes, and to determine the appropriate times for planting crops. Many early cultures also attributed divine status to these celestial bodies.

What were some key developments in astronomical study during the Middle Ages?

During the Middle Ages, cultures began to study celestial movements more systematically. Astronomers in the Middle East created detailed descriptions of stars and nebulae, developing more accurate calendars based on these observations. In Europe, the focus was more on developing instruments for observation and creating educational materials and institutions, like universities, to teach astronomy.

What was the significance of Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentric model published in 1543?

The publication of Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentric model in 1543 marked a pivotal moment in astronomy. It proposed that the Earth, along with other planets, orbits the Sun, which is situated at the center of the Solar System. This challenged the long-held geocentric view and laid the groundwork for modern astronomy.

How did Johannes Kepler's work contribute to the understanding of planetary motion?

Johannes Kepler formulated Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which describe the mathematical properties of the orbits that astronomical bodies follow. His laws provided a more accurate description of planetary movement and helped refine Copernicus's heliocentric model.

What groundbreaking idea did Giordano Bruno propose regarding distant stars?

In 1584, Giordano Bruno proposed a revolutionary idea: that distant stars are similar to our Sun, suggesting they are other suns. This was a significant conceptual leap, being the first to propose this idea in centuries.

What were Galileo Galilei's key astronomical observations made using a telescope?

Galileo Galilei was among the first to use telescopes for astronomical observation. In 1610, he observed Jupiter's four largest moons (now known as the Galilean moons). He also documented the phases of Venus, observed craters on the Moon, and detected sunspots on the Sun.

How did Edmond Halley contribute to our understanding of comets?

Edmond Halley successfully predicted the return of a specific comet in 1758, which was later named Halley's Comet in his honor. This demonstrated that comets were predictable celestial bodies following orbits, rather than random occurrences.

What new planet did Sir William Herschel discover, and why was it significant?

In 1781, Sir William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus. Its discovery was significant because it was the first planet found that is not visible to the naked eye, expanding the known boundaries of the Solar System.

What technological and scientific advancements in the 19th and 20th centuries significantly expanded astronomical understanding?

The 19th and 20th centuries saw major advancements, including the construction of larger telescopes and observatories, the use of photographic plates to record images of celestial bodies, and the discovery of new wavelengths of light beyond the visible spectrum. New telescopes were developed to observe these wavelengths, and the field of spectroscopy emerged, allowing scientists to analyze the composition of stars and nebulae. Computers also began to be used for processing vast amounts of astronomical data.

How did spectroscopy advance the study of stars and nebulae?

Pioneered by figures like Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi, spectroscopy allowed astronomers to analyze the light emitted or absorbed by celestial objects. This technique enabled them to determine the chemical composition of stars and nebulae, and also to calculate the masses of binary stars by studying their orbital elements.

What is the purpose of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram?

The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram, developed independently by Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell in 1913, is a crucial tool in astronomy. It plots stars based on their luminosity (brightness) against their surface temperature (color), allowing astronomers to visualize and study stellar evolution and classification, revealing patterns like the main-sequence band.

How did Edwin Hubble's work resolve debates about the nature of galaxies?

Edwin Hubble definitively resolved debates about whether galaxies existed beyond the Milky Way. By identifying the Andromeda nebula as a separate galaxy, and subsequently many others, he proved that the universe contained numerous galaxies far beyond our own.

What is the hierarchical structure of the universe on the largest scales?

On the largest scales, the universe exhibits a hierarchical structure. The fundamental building blocks are galaxies, which are organized into groups and clusters. These clusters are often part of even larger superclusters, which are arranged along vast filaments of matter that surround immense, nearly empty voids, forming a cosmic web that spans the observable universe.

What are the main morphological classifications of galaxies?

Galaxies are classified by their shapes, which reflect their formation and evolutionary histories. The primary morphological types include irregular galaxies, elliptical galaxies, and disk-like galaxies. Disk galaxies further encompass lenticular and spiral galaxies, which often feature spiral arms and a galactic halo.

What is typically found at the core of most galaxies?

Most galaxies possess a supermassive black hole at their center. The activity of this central black hole can sometimes lead to the formation of an active galactic nucleus (AGN).

How do stars form and assemble within a galaxy?

Stars within a galaxy are formed from gaseous matter that coalesces through gravitational self-attraction. This process often leads to stars assembling in clusters from condensing nebulae. The variety of stellar types is primarily determined by a star's mass, composition, and evolutionary stage.

What is the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, and what does it illustrate about stars?

The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram is a scatter plot that graphs the luminosity of stars against their spectral classification (related to surface temperature). It reveals that stars tend to fall into specific regions, most notably a band known as the main-sequence stars, and illustrates their evolutionary paths.

What are some examples of variable stars mentioned in the text?

The text mentions several types of variable stars, including Cepheid variables, RR Lyrae variables, Mira variables, semiregular variables, irregular variables, Beta Cephei variables, and Alpha Cygni variables. These stars change in brightness over time due to physical processes within them.

What happens to a star at the end of its life cycle, depending on its mass?

Depending on its initial mass and whether it has a companion star, a star's end-of-life evolution can lead to it becoming a compact object. These can be a white dwarf, a neutron star, or, for the most massive stars, a black hole. Evolving stars can also shed their outer layers to form nebulae, such as planetary nebulae or supernova remnants.

What is the IAU definition regarding the shape of planets and dwarf planets?

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) definitions for planets and dwarf planets require that these astronomical bodies, if they orbit the Sun, must have achieved a roughly spherical shape. This shape is a result of reaching hydrostatic equilibrium, where gravity has pulled the body into a balanced, rounded form.

What defines a small Solar System body (SSSB) according to the IAU?

According to the IAU, any natural body orbiting the Sun that has not achieved hydrostatic equilibrium is classified as a small Solar System body (SSSB). These bodies often have irregular, non-spherical shapes because they haven't accumulated enough mass to generate the internal heat needed for gravitational rounding.

Why are stars, like the Sun, generally spheroidal in shape?

Stars, including our Sun, are spheroidal in shape primarily due to the force of gravity. Gravity acts equally in all directions from the center of mass, pulling the star's plasma (which behaves like a fluid) into a spherical form. Ongoing nuclear fusion within the star provides significant heat, but gravity is the dominant factor in maintaining its shape.

What are the main categories of astronomical objects listed in the table?

The table categorizes astronomical objects into several main groups: Solar bodies (those within our Solar System), Extrasolar objects (which are further divided into simple bodies, compound objects, and extended objects), and objects within the observable universe at large.

Can you list some examples of 'Solar bodies' mentioned in the table?

Solar bodies include terrestrial planets, giant planets (gas and ice giants), moons, meteoroids, meteors, minor planets (like asteroids and dwarf planets), comets, the Sun, and objects within the Oort cloud and Kuiper belt, such as Trans-Neptunian objects.

What types of 'Extrasolar' astronomical objects are listed?

Extrasolar objects include exoplanets (planets outside our solar system), brown dwarfs, and stars. The table also lists various types of stars based on their luminosity, evolutionary stage, spectral type, or peculiar characteristics, as well as compact stars like neutron stars and black holes.

What are some examples of 'compound objects' or 'systems' found outside our Solar System?

Outside our Solar System, compound objects and systems include planetary systems (orbiting other stars), star systems (like binary or triple star systems), and stellar groupings such as star clusters (open and globular) and stellar associations.

What types of 'extended objects' are mentioned in the classification table?

Extended objects listed include nebulae (like emission, reflection, and dark nebulae), discs and media (interplanetary, stellar, interstellar, and intergalactic), and larger cosmic structures like filaments and voids within the observable universe.

What is the role of galaxies in the structure of the universe?

Galaxies are considered the fundamental component of assembly at the largest scales of the universe's hierarchical structure. They are organized into groups and clusters, which in turn form larger superclusters arranged along filaments and surrounding voids.

How are stars classified based on their temperature and color?

Stars are classified by spectral types, which correspond to their surface temperature and color. The main spectral types listed are O (blue), B (blue-white), A (white), F (yellow-white), G (yellow, like our Sun), K (orange), and M (red). These classifications are often associated with specific temperature ranges and colors.

What are 'compact stars' and what examples are provided?

Compact stars are stellar remnants that represent the final evolutionary stages for stars of different masses. Examples provided include white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. The text also mentions hypothetical types like quark stars and Planck stars.

What are some examples of nebulae mentioned in the text?

The text categorizes nebulae into several types: emission nebulae (including planetary nebulae, supernova remnants, and H II regions), reflection nebulae, and dark nebulae (which include molecular clouds and Bok globules). H I regions are also mentioned.

What is the significance of the 'observable universe' category in astronomical object classification?

The 'observable universe' category encompasses the largest structures and phenomena in cosmology. This includes the cosmic microwave background (CMB), cosmic strings (hypothetical), dark matter structures like MACHOs and WIMPs, filaments, large quasar groups (LQGs), and vast voids, representing the grandest scales of cosmic organization.

What are 'binary stars' and how are they observed or classified?

Binary stars are star systems consisting of two stars orbiting a common center of mass. They can be classified by how they are observed, such as optical binaries (appearing close together), visual binaries (resolvable through telescopes), astrometric binaries (detected by their gravitational wobble), spectroscopic binaries (identified by spectral shifts), and eclipsing binaries (where one star periodically passes in front of the other).

What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic variable stars?

Variable stars are classified as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic variables change brightness due to physical processes within the star itself, such as pulsations (like Cepheids or Mira variables) or eruptions. Extrinsic variables change brightness due to external factors, such as eclipsing binaries or stars with rotating starspots.

What are some examples of 'active galaxies'?

Active galaxies are galaxies that emit significant amounts of energy from their core, often due to a supermassive black hole. Examples include radio galaxies, Seyfert galaxies, quasars (which can include microquasars and OVV quasars), and blazars.

What is the purpose of the 'See also' section in the article?

The 'See also' section provides links to related topics and lists that can offer further information. It includes entries like 'List of light sources,' 'List of Solar System objects,' 'Lists of astronomical objects,' and 'Outer space,' guiding readers to related content for deeper exploration.

What kind of resources are provided in the 'External links' section?

The 'External links' section provides links to external websites offering additional information. These include resources like SkyChart for observing, monthly skymaps for different locations, and a link to Wikimedia Commons for related media files on astronomical objects.

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Defining Astronomical Objects

Natural Entities in Space

An astronomical object, also referred to as a celestial object, stellar object, or heavenly body, is fundamentally a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists within the observable universe. These terms are often used interchangeably in astronomical discourse, though a distinction can be made.

Bodies vs. Objects

While the terms are frequently synonymous, an astronomical body or celestial body typically denotes a single, tightly bound, contiguous entity. Conversely, an astronomical or celestial object may encompass a more complex, less cohesively bound structure, potentially comprising multiple bodies or even other objects with intricate substructures. For instance, a comet can be considered both a body (its frozen nucleus) and an object (including its diffuse coma and tail).

Examples of Objects and Bodies

The universe is populated by a vast array of these entities. Examples of astronomical objects include planetary systems, star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies. In contrast, individual asteroids, moons, planets, and stars are generally classified as astronomical bodies.

Historical Perspectives

Ancient Observations and Beliefs

For millennia, civilizations have observed astronomical bodies such as stars, planets, nebulae, asteroids, and comets. Early cultures often imbued these celestial phenomena with divine significance, utilizing their movements for navigation, seasonal determination, and agricultural planning. The meticulous tracking of celestial bodies formed the basis of early calendars and astronomical records.

The Scientific Revolution and Beyond

The Scientific Revolution marked a paradigm shift. Nicolaus Copernicus's publication of the heliocentric model in 1543 proposed that Earth and other planets orbit the Sun. Johannes Kepler further refined this understanding with his laws of planetary motion. Giordano Bruno posited that distant stars were suns, and Galileo Galilei's telescopic observations revealed Jupiter's moons, Venus's phases, and solar features, fundamentally altering our cosmic perspective.

1758: Edmond Halley successfully predicted the return of Halley's Comet.
1781: Sir William Herschel discovered Uranus, the first planet identified beyond naked-eye visibility.
19th-20th Centuries: Advancements in telescope technology, spectroscopy, and the application of computers enabled detailed analysis of stellar composition, mass, and luminosity. The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram emerged as a critical tool for stellar classification.
Early 20th Century: Edwin Hubble's identification of the Andromeda Nebula as a distinct galaxy resolved debates about the scale of the universe.

Cosmic Origins

According to NASA astrophysicists, the earliest astronomical objects likely formed approximately 200 million years after the Big Bang, approximately 13.6 billion years ago. Gravitational forces gradually coalesced primordial matter into the first stars and galaxies, initiating the cosmic structures we observe today.

Classification of Celestial Bodies

The universe exhibits a hierarchical structure, with galaxies serving as fundamental building blocks. These galaxies are organized into groups, clusters, and superclusters, forming a vast cosmic web. The table below categorizes astronomical objects based on their location and structure.

Solar Bodies	Extrasolar			Observable Universe
Solar Bodies	Simple Bodies	Compound Objects	Extended Objects	Observable Universe
Solar System Terrestrial planet Giant planet Gas giant Ice giant Heliosphere Oort cloud Hills Cloud Meteoroid Micrometeoroid Meteor Bolide Moons of the Solar System Moonlets Subsatellites (hypothet.) Minor planets (see below) Asteroids Dwarf planets Moons Binaries Synestia (hypothet.) Planets (see below) Ring system Trans-Neptunian objects Small Solar System body Comets Planetesimal Contact binary (small Solar System body) Sun Planets Mercury Venus Earth – Moon Mars – moons Jupiter – moons Saturn – moons Uranus – moons Neptune – moons Dwarf planets Pluto – moons Eris – Dysnomia Ceres Makemake – moon Haumea – moons Quaoar – Weywot Orcus – Vanth Gonggong – Xiangliu Sedna Others Minor planets Vulcanoids (hypothet.) C/2014 Q2 (Lovejoy) asteroids Atiras Near-Earth objects PHO Arjunas Atens Apollos Amors Mars-crossers Asteroid belt (families) Alindas Cybeles Eos Floras Hildas Hungarias Hygieas Koronis Marias Nysas Pallas Phocaeas Themis Vesta Trojans Earth Mars Jupiter Uranus Neptune Centaurs Damocloids Kuiper belt objects Classical KBOs Resonant TNOs Plutinos (2:3) Twotinos (1:2) Scattered disc objects Detached objects Sednoids	Exoplanets Chthonian (theoret.) Earth analog Eccentric Jupiter Exomoon Tidally detached exomoon Exocomet Hot Jupiter Hot Neptune Rogue planet Ocean (theoret.) Pulsar planet Super-Earth Tidally locked planet Eyeball planet (theoret.) Toroidal planet (theoret.) Trojan (theoret.) USP Brown dwarfs Types M L T Y Sub-brown dwarfs Stars (see sections below) Stellar classification Stellar population III, II, I Peculiar star Stellar evolution Variable star Compact star By luminosity / evolution Protostar Young stellar object Pre-main-sequence Main sequence Subdwarfs Subgiants Giants Red / Blue Bright giants Supergiants Red / Blue Hypergiants Ultra-cool dwarf Quasi-star (hypothet.) Compact stars (see below) Compact stars Black hole Stellar Intermediate-mass Supermassive GRBs BBHs Exotic star (hypothet.) Iron star (hypothet.) Neutron star Blitzar (hypothet.) Magnetar Pulsar Thorne–Žytkow object (hypothet.) Planck star (hypothet.) Preon star (hypothet.) Quark star (hypothet.) Strange star (hypothet.) White dwarf Black dwarf (theoret.) By peculiar stars A-type Peculiar Metallic Barium star Blue straggler Carbon star P Cygni star S-type star Shell star Wolf–Rayet Variables – Extrinsic Rotating Alpha2 CVn Ellipsoidal Eclipsing binaries Algol Beta Lyrae W Ursae Majoris Variables – Intrinsic Pulsating Cepheids W Virginis Delta Scuti RR Lyrae Mira Semiregular Irregular Beta Cephei Alpha Cygni RV Tauri Eruptive variables Flare stars T Tauri FU Orionis R Coronae Borealis Luminous blue Cataclysmic Symbiotics Micronova Dwarf nova Nova Supernova Type: Ia • Ib/c • II Hypernova GRBs Failed supernova By spectral types O (blue) B (blue-white) A (white) F (yellow-white) G (yellow) K (orange) M (red)	Systems Planetary Star Stars in general Binary (see below) Triples Higher order Binary stars By observation Optical Visual Astrometric Spectroscopic Eclipsing Close binaries Detached Semidetached Contact X-ray Burster Stellar groupings Star cluster Stellar association Open Globular Hypercompact Constellation Asterism Galaxies Galaxies in general Group and cluster Satellite galaxy Supercluster By component Bulge Spiral arm Thin disk Thick disk Halo Corona Tidal tail Stellar stream By morphology Spiral Barred spiral Lenticular Elliptical Ring Irregular By size Brightest cluster Giant elliptical Dwarf By type Protogalaxy Starburst Dark Active Radio Seyfert Quasar Microquasar Blazar OVV Red nugget Void galaxy	Discs and media Interplanetary Dust cloud Medium Magnetic field Stellar disc Accretion Circumstellar Protoplanetary Debris Interstellar Cloud Medium Odd radio circle Intergalactic Dust Medium Odd radio circle Nebulae Emission Planetary Supernova remnant Plerion H II region Reflection Dark nebulae Molecular cloud Bok globule Proplyd H I region Cosmic scale CMB Cosmic string (hypothet.) Dark matter MACHO WIMP Domain wall (hypothet.) Cosmic dust Filament LQG Void Supervoid	Logarithmic representation of the observable universe with notable astronomical objects, arranged by proximity to Earth. Infographic listing 210 notable astronomical objects with distinguishing features.

The Geometry of Celestial Bodies

Hydrostatic Equilibrium

A fundamental criterion for classifying celestial bodies like planets and dwarf planets, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), is the attainment of a roughly spherical shape due to self-gravity. This state, known as hydrostatic equilibrium, results from the body's mass being sufficient to overcome its material strength, leading to a rounded form.

This spheroidal shape is observable across various celestial bodies, from rocky planets like Mars to gas giants like Jupiter. Stars, composed of plasma, are also inherently spherical due to gravity's uniform pull.

Bodies that have not achieved hydrostatic equilibrium are classified as Small Solar System Bodies (SSSBs). These often possess irregular, lumpy shapes, indicative of haphazard accretion without sufficient mass to initiate rounding. Some larger SSSBs may be partially rounded but have not reached full equilibrium.

Non-Spherical Forms

Many smaller astronomical bodies, such as asteroids and cometary nuclei, lack the necessary mass to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium. Consequently, they retain irregular shapes, often appearing as collections of loosely bound material rather than solid, fused bedrock. Even larger bodies like the asteroid Vesta exhibit significant deviations from perfect sphericity.

Cosmic Hierarchies

Galactic Structures

On the grandest scales, the universe is organized hierarchically, with galaxies forming the primary structural units. These galaxies are further organized into groups and clusters, which in turn reside within larger superclusters. These superclusters are arranged along vast filaments, interspersed with immense, nearly empty voids, creating a cosmic web structure that spans the observable universe.

Within the Galaxy

Galaxies exhibit diverse morphologies, including irregular, elliptical, and disk-like shapes, shaped by their formation histories and interactions with other galaxies, potentially leading to mergers. Disk galaxies often feature spiral arms and distinct halos. Most galaxies harbor a supermassive black hole at their core, which can power active galactic nuclei. Satellite galaxies and globular clusters are common companions.

Within galaxies, stars are typically assembled in clusters from condensing nebulae. Their characteristics are determined by mass, composition, and evolutionary state. Stars can exist in multi-star systems. Planetary systems, along with minor objects like asteroids and comets, form hierarchically from protoplanetary disks surrounding newly formed stars.

Further Exploration

Media Resources

Discover visual and categorized information:

🖼️ Wikimedia Commons: Astronomical Objects
🗺️ SkyChart Archive

References

^ Task Group on Astronomical Designations from IAU Commission 5 (April 2008). "Naming Astronomical Objects". International Astronomical Union (IAU). Archived from the original on 2 August 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
^ "The Early Universe". NASA.
^ Narlikar, Jayant V. (1996). Elements of Cosmology. Universities Press. ISBN 81-7371-043-0.
^ Smolin, Lee (1998). The life of the cosmos. Oxford University Press US. p. 35. ISBN 0-19-512664-5.
^ Buta, Ronald James; Corwin, Harold G.; Odewahn, Stephen C. (2007). The de Vaucouleurs atlas of galaxies. Cambridge University Press. p. 301. ISBN 978-0-521-82048-6.
^ Hartung, Ernst Johannes (1984-10-18). Astronomical Objects for Southern Telescopes. CUP Archive. ISBN 0521318874. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
^ Elmegreen, Bruce G. (January 2010). "The nature and nurture of star clusters". Star clusters: basic galactic building blocks throughout time and space, Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, IAU Symposium. Vol. 266. pp. 3–13. arXiv:0910.4638. Bibcode:2010IAUS..266....3E. doi:10.1017/S1743921309990809.
^ Hansen, Carl J.; Kawaler, Steven D.; Trimble, Virginia (2004). Stellar interiors: physical principles, structure, and evolution (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 86. ISBN 0-387-20089-4.

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Celestial Architectures

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Defining Astronomical Objects ✨

🌌 Natural Entities in Space

🪐 Bodies vs. Objects

🌠 Examples of Objects and Bodies

Historical Perspectives ⏳

📜 Ancient Observations and Beliefs

🔭 The Scientific Revolution and Beyond

⚛️ Cosmic Origins

Classification of Celestial Bodies 📚

The Geometry of Celestial Bodies 📐

🌍 Hydrostatic Equilibrium

💫 Non-Spherical Forms

Cosmic Hierarchies 🌐

🏛️ Galactic Structures

🌟 Within the Galaxy

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Astronomical Objects

Natural Entities in Space

Bodies vs. Objects

Examples of Objects and Bodies

Historical Perspectives

Ancient Observations and Beliefs

The Scientific Revolution and Beyond

Cosmic Origins

Classification of Celestial Bodies

The Geometry of Celestial Bodies

Hydrostatic Equilibrium

Non-Spherical Forms

Cosmic Hierarchies

Galactic Structures

Within the Galaxy

Further Exploration

Related Topics

Media Resources

References

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

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