What is atmospheric electricity, and what fundamental electrical process does it describe?

Atmospheric electricity refers to the electrical charges present within the Earth's atmosphere, or potentially that of other planets. It encompasses the movement of electrical charge between the Earth's surface, the atmosphere, and the ionosphere, a phenomenon known as the global atmospheric electrical circuit.

What scientific disciplines are involved in the study of atmospheric electricity?

The study of atmospheric electricity is an interdisciplinary field that draws upon concepts from electrostatics, atmospheric physics, meteorology, and Earth science.

How do thunderstorms contribute to the electrical state of the atmosphere?

Thunderstorms function like giant batteries in the atmosphere, capable of charging the electrosphere to approximately 400,000 volts relative to the Earth's surface. This process establishes an electric field throughout the atmosphere.

What is the typical magnitude and orientation of the electric field near the Earth's surface during fair weather conditions?

In fair weather, away from thunderstorms, the electric field near the Earth's surface typically measures around 100 volts per meter. This field is oriented to drive positive charges downwards towards the ground.

Besides thunderstorms, what other natural phenomena contribute to the continuous electrification of the atmosphere?

The atmosphere is continuously electrified by ionization caused by cosmic rays and natural radioactivity. These processes ensure that the atmosphere is never electrically neutral.

What early observations led scientists to hypothesize that lightning was an electrical phenomenon?

Early experimenters like Francis Hauksbee, Isaac Newton, William Wall, Jean-Antoine Nollet, and Stephen Gray observed sparks from electrical machines and Leyden jars, which resembled miniature lightning. William Wall, in 1708, was among the first to note this similarity after observing sparks from charged amber.

How did Benjamin Franklin's experiments advance the understanding of atmospheric electricity?

Benjamin Franklin's experiments demonstrated that atmospheric electrical phenomena were fundamentally similar to those produced in a laboratory. By 1749, he had observed that lightning shared nearly all the properties of electrical machines.

What was Benjamin Franklin's key hypothesis regarding drawing electricity from clouds, and how was it tested?

In 1750, Franklin hypothesized that electricity could be drawn from clouds using a tall, sharp metal aerial. Before he could conduct his experiment, Thomas-François Dalibard successfully performed a similar experiment in 1752 near Paris, erecting an iron rod that drew sparks from a passing cloud, confirming Franklin's theory.

Beyond Franklin's kite experiment, what other early experiments involved aerials to study atmospheric electricity?

Thomas-François Dalibard erected a tall iron rod in 1752 to draw sparks from clouds. Later, L. G. Lemonnier also used an aerial, substituting a ground wire with dust particles to test attraction, and documented the fair weather condition and its diurnal variation. Giovanni Battista Beccaria confirmed Lemonnier's diurnal data and determined the atmosphere's positive charge polarity in fair weather.

What significant findings did Horace-Bénédict de Saussure contribute to the study of atmospheric electricity?

Saussure recorded data on induced charge in the atmosphere and found that atmospheric electrification under clear weather conditions varied annually and with altitude. He also developed an instrument that was a precursor to the electrometer.

What discovery did Charles-Augustin de Coulomb make regarding the electrical properties of air?

In 1785, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb discovered the electrical conductivity of air. This finding contradicted the prevailing belief that atmospheric gases were insulators, as they are only weakly conductive when not ionized.

What were Francis Ronalds' key contributions to the study of atmospheric electricity in the early 19th century?

Starting around 1810, Francis Ronalds began observing the potential gradient and air-earth currents, including making continuous automated recordings. He later resumed this research at the Kew Observatory, establishing the first extensive dataset of electrical and meteorological parameters and aiming to map atmospheric electricity globally.

What instruments did Lord Kelvin develop or introduce that were significant for atmospheric electricity research at the Kew Observatory?

Lord Kelvin introduced his new water dropper collector and a divided-ring electrometer at the Kew Observatory in the 1860s, which remained important tools for atmospheric electricity studies there.

What theoretical contributions and discoveries did J. Elster and H. F. Geitel make in the field of atmospheric electricity?

Elster and Geitel proposed a theory to explain the electrical structure of thunderstorms in 1885. They also discovered atmospheric radioactivity in 1899, based on their observations of positive and negative ions in the atmosphere.

How did Friedrich Carl Alwin Pockels attempt to estimate the intensity of lightning currents?

Around 1900, Pockels estimated lightning current intensity by analyzing lightning flashes in basalt, which becomes magnetically polarized by strong currents. He studied the residual magnetic fields left by lightning strikes.

Describe the typical electrical conditions in the atmosphere during fair weather.

During fair weather, the air above the Earth's surface is generally positively charged, while the Earth's surface itself carries a negative charge. This creates a potential difference, and a weak conduction current of atmospheric ions flows between the surface and the atmosphere.

How do conditions like fog and dust affect the atmospheric electric field and conductivity?

While atmospheric electricity can be variable even away from thunderstorms, fogs and dust generally enhance the electric field while diminishing the atmospheric electrical conductivity.

How do organisms interact with or utilize atmospheric electric fields?

Organisms like bumblebees can detect near-surface electrostatic forces to navigate to flowers, and spiders use these forces to initiate dispersal through ballooning. The atmospheric potential gradient is also thought to influence sub-surface electro-chemistry and microbial processes.

What biological entities can contribute to atmospheric electrical variability?

Swarming insects and birds can act as sources of biogenic charge in the atmosphere, potentially contributing to electrical variability.

What is the electrosphere, and what are its electrical characteristics?

The electrosphere is a layer of the atmosphere extending from tens of kilometers above the Earth's surface up to the ionosphere. It is characterized by high electrical conductivity and maintains a relatively constant electric potential.

What is the ionosphere, and how is it formed?

The ionosphere is the inner boundary of the magnetosphere and is formed when solar radiation ionizes the atmospheric gases. This process, known as photoionization, creates ions and free electrons.

How does cosmic radiation affect the Earth's atmosphere electrically?

Cosmic radiation, composed of charged particles from space, bombards the Earth and interacts with atmospheric atoms, creating an 'air shower' of secondary ionizing radiation. This ionization makes the atmosphere weakly conductive, and the resulting ion current flow helps balance the current generated by thunderstorms.

How do thunderstorms and lightning contribute to maintaining the Earth's electrical potential difference with the ionosphere?

Thunderstorms are the primary drivers that maintain the potential difference between the ionosphere and the Earth. Lightning strikes act as a mechanism to rapidly discharge atmospheric charge, delivering negative charges from the atmosphere to the ground.

What process within cumulonimbus clouds leads to the charge separation necessary for lightning?

Collisions between ice particles and soft hail (graupel) inside cumulonimbus clouds cause positive and negative charges to separate within the cloud, which is a crucial step in the generation of lightning.

What are the typical electrical characteristics of an average lightning bolt?

An average lightning bolt carries a negative electric current of about 40 kiloamperes (kA), transfers approximately five coulombs of charge, and releases about 500 megajoules (MJ) of energy. This energy is sufficient to power a 100-watt lightbulb for nearly two months.

How does the total energy released by an average thunderstorm compare to a nuclear weapon?

The energy released by an average thunderstorm is estimated to be around 10,000,000 kilowatt-hours, equivalent to approximately 3.6 x 10^13 joules. This is comparable to the energy output of a 20-kiloton nuclear warhead, with severe thunderstorms being even more energetic.

What is St. Elmo's Fire, and what causes it?

St. Elmo's Fire is a luminous plasma phenomenon created by a coronal discharge originating from a grounded object. It occurs when the strong electric field around an object ionizes the air molecules, producing a visible glow, typically observed during thunderstorms on pointed objects like spires or treetops.

Is St. Elmo's Fire the same phenomenon as ball lightning?

No, St. Elmo's Fire is often mistakenly identified as ball lightning, but they are distinct phenomena. St. Elmo's Fire is a plasma glow, while ball lightning is a separate, less understood electrical event.

What factors influence the voltage required to produce St. Elmo's Fire?

The voltage required to induce St. Elmo's Fire is typically between 1,000 and 30,000 volts per centimeter. However, this threshold is dependent on the geometry of the object; sharp points concentrate electric fields, requiring lower voltages to initiate the discharge.

What causes St. Elmo's Fire to glow with a blue or violet light?

The blue or violet color of St. Elmo's Fire is due to the fluorescence of nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the Earth's atmosphere when they are ionized by the strong electric field, similar to how neon signs produce light.

What are Schumann resonances, and what causes them?

Schumann resonances are a set of spectrum peaks in the extremely low frequency (ELF) range of the Earth's electromagnetic field. They are caused by the space between the Earth's surface and the conductive ionosphere acting as a resonant cavity, naturally excited by energy from lightning strikes.

Why is electrical system grounding important in relation to atmospheric electricity?

Electrical system grounding is crucial for dissipating potentially dangerous atmospheric charge buildup that can occur in overhead power lines, even without thunderstorms. Connecting one side of the distribution system to the earth at multiple points provides a safe path for this charge to dissipate.

What is the primary function of the 'protective earth' wire in electrical distribution systems?

The protective earth wire, connected to the ground at many points, serves to dissipate atmospheric charge buildup and prevent dangerous voltage potentials from accumulating on the power lines. It provides a redundant path for charge dissipation.

Besides dissipating atmospheric charge, what is another important function of the grounding wire in electrical systems?

The grounding wire also provides a high-current short-circuit path. This allows fuses to blow rapidly, rendering a damaged device safe by preventing hazardous voltage buildup if its insulation fails.

How does grounding apply to transformers within alternating current (AC) distribution grids?

Each transformer in an AC grid creates a separate circuit loop. These individual grids must also be grounded on one side to prevent charge buildup relative to the rest of the system, which could otherwise discharge across the transformer coils.

What information is provided about lightning in the image caption?

The image caption describes cloud-to-ground lightning, noting that it typically discharges 30,000 amperes at up to 100 million volts. It also emits light, radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays, with plasma temperatures approaching 28,000 kelvins.

What does the world map of lightning strikes illustrate?

The world map illustrates the frequency of lightning strikes across the globe, measured in flashes per square kilometer per year. It indicates that lightning strikes most frequently in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, based on combined data from the Optical Transient Detector and the Lightning Imaging Sensor.

What does the image depicting a lightning sequence show?

The image shows a sequence of lightning discharges, with the duration of the event noted as 0.32 seconds.

What phenomenon is depicted in the image related to Mars, and what is its significance?

The image depicts atmospheric electricity within a Martian dust storm. This phenomenon has been suggested as a potential explanation for enigmatic chemistry results observed by the Viking lander experiments on Mars.

What is the 'Carnegie curve,' and what does it represent?

The Carnegie curve refers to the global daily cycles observed in the atmospheric electric field, with a minimum around 03 Universal Time (UT) and a peak approximately 16 hours later. It has been described as the 'fundamental electrical heartbeat of the planet.'

What methods were historically used to conduct atmospheric electricity measurements at high altitudes?

Historically, kites were used to lift experimental equipment for high-altitude measurements. Weather balloons or aerostats are still employed for this purpose, and early experimenters even ascended in hot-air balloons.

What are the primary areas of current research in atmospheric electricity?

Current research in atmospheric electricity primarily focuses on lightning, particularly high-energy particles and transient luminous events associated with it. It also investigates the role of non-thunderstorm electrical processes in weather and climate.

How is the ionosphere related to the Earth's magnetosphere?

The ionosphere is considered the inner boundary of the magnetosphere, a region of the atmosphere that becomes ionized by solar radiation.

What is photoionization?

Photoionization is a physical process where a photon strikes an atom, ion, or molecule, resulting in the ejection of one or more electrons.

What characteristic parameters of ions vary with altitude in the atmosphere?

Ions in the atmosphere have characteristic parameters such as mobility, lifetime, and generation rate, all of which vary with altitude.

What are some of the debated root causes for the initial formation of lightning?

Scientists are studying various potential root causes for lightning initiation, ranging from atmospheric perturbations like wind, humidity, and pressure, to the impact of solar wind and energetic particles.

What is the approximate power output within a lightning return stroke channel?

Due to intense channel ionization, the potential gradient within a well-developed lightning return-stroke channel is relatively low, on the order of hundreds of volts per meter or less. This results in a true power output on the order of megawatts per meter for vigorous return-stroke currents of 100 kA.

What did Charles-Augustin de Coulomb discover about the electrical properties of air in 1785?

In 1785, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb discovered that air is electrically conductive. This finding challenged the prevailing view that atmospheric gases were insulators.

What theory did Paul Erman propose in 1804 regarding the Earth's electrical state?

In 1804, Paul Erman theorized that the Earth itself was negatively charged.

What role did Jean Charles Athanase Peltier play in relation to Erman's theory?

Jean Charles Athanase Peltier tested and confirmed Erman's theory that the Earth was negatively charged.

What specific atmospheric electrical phenomenon did L. G. Lemonnier document in 1752?

L. G. Lemonnier documented the 'fair weather condition,' which refers to the clear-day electrification of the atmosphere and its diurnal variation.

Atmospheric Electricity Wiki: Atmospheric Electricity: The Sky's Electrical Symphony

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

When you are ready...
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮

Historical Foundations

Early Observations and Hypotheses

The study of atmospheric electricity has roots stretching back centuries. Early experimenters like Francis Hauksbee, Isaac Newton, and Jean-Antoine Nollet observed electrical phenomena in laboratories and drew parallels to lightning. William Wall, in 1708, was among the first to note the similarity between laboratory sparks and miniature lightning.

Franklin's Groundbreaking Work

Benjamin Franklin's pivotal experiments demonstrated that atmospheric electrical phenomena were fundamentally similar to laboratory-generated electricity. By 1749, he had hypothesized that electricity could be drawn from clouds using a pointed aerial. Thomas-François Dalibard's 1752 experiment in Marly-la-Ville, France, successfully drew sparks from a cloud, validating Franklin's theory, which Franklin himself reportedly confirmed with his famous kite experiment shortly thereafter.

Expanding the Understanding

Subsequent researchers like L. G. Lemonnier, Giovanni Battista Beccaria, and Horace-Bénédict de Saussure meticulously documented diurnal and annual variations in atmospheric electrification and its relationship with altitude. Charles-Augustin de Coulomb's discovery of air's electrical conductivity in 1785 challenged prevailing notions of atmospheric gases as insulators.

Systematic Measurement and Theory

In the 19th century, figures like Francis Ronalds pioneered continuous automated recordings of atmospheric electricity at Kew Observatory, establishing the first comprehensive datasets. Lord Kelvin's innovations in electrometers further advanced measurement capabilities. Elster and Geitel proposed theories on thunderstorm electrification and discovered atmospheric radioactivity, while Pockels analyzed lightning currents through magnetic field studies. The 20th century saw continued research into high-energy particles, transient luminous events, and the role of non-thunderstorm electrical processes.

The Nature of Atmospheric Electricity

The Global Electrical Circuit

Atmospheric electricity describes the electrical charges present within a planet's atmosphere. The continuous movement of electrical charge between the Earth's surface, the atmosphere, and the ionosphere constitutes the global atmospheric electrical circuit. This phenomenon is a complex interplay of electrostatics, atmospheric physics, meteorology, and Earth science.

Atmospheric Potential Gradient

In fair weather, away from thunderstorms, the Earth's surface typically carries a negative charge, while the atmosphere above is positively charged. This creates a potential difference, resulting in an electric field directed downwards towards the ground. The average magnitude of this field near the Earth's surface is approximately 100 volts per meter (V/m), though it decreases with increasing altitude. This field drives a weak conduction current of atmospheric ions.

Ionization and Conductivity

The atmosphere is never electrically neutral due to continuous ionization from cosmic rays and natural radioactivity. These processes generate atmospheric ions, which are crucial for the atmosphere's weak electrical conductivity. This conductivity allows for the flow of small electrical currents, even in the absence of thunderstorms.

Temporal and Environmental Variations

The Carnegie Curve

Global daily cycles in the atmospheric electric field exhibit a distinct pattern, known as the Carnegie curve. This variation, with a minimum around 03 Universal Time (UT) and peaking approximately 16 hours later, has been described as the planet's fundamental electrical heartbeat. It reflects the integrated electrical activity across the globe.

Influence of Local Conditions

Atmospheric electricity is subject to significant variability. Even away from major storm systems, factors like fogs and dust storms can enhance the electric field while simultaneously diminishing the atmospheric electrical conductivity. These localized conditions play a crucial role in the dynamic behavior of atmospheric charge.

Biological Interactions

Navigation and Dispersal

The atmospheric potential gradient influences organisms. Electrostatic forces near the Earth's surface, amplified by objects like flowers and trees, are detected by insects such as bumblebees for navigation. Similarly, spiders utilize these electric fields to initiate dispersal through ballooning.

Biogenic Charge Sources

Conversely, biological activity can also contribute to atmospheric electricity. Swarming insects and birds can act as sources of biogenic charge, introducing variability into the atmospheric electrical system. This bidirectional influence highlights the intricate connection between atmospheric phenomena and the biosphere.

Subsurface Processes

The atmospheric potential gradient is also thought to influence electro-chemical processes and microbial activity beneath the Earth's surface, suggesting a deeper connection between atmospheric electrical states and terrestrial biogeochemistry.

Atmospheric Electricity and Near Space

The Electrosphere

The region extending from tens of kilometers above the Earth's surface up to the ionosphere is known as the electrosphere. This layer possesses high electrical conductivity and maintains a relatively constant electric potential. It forms the inner boundary of the magnetosphere.

Ionization by Solar Radiation

The ionosphere, a key component of the upper atmosphere, is significantly ionized by solar radiation. This process, known as photoionization, involves photons interacting with atmospheric atoms and molecules, leading to the ejection of electrons. This ionization is fundamental to the electrical properties of the upper atmosphere.

Cosmic Radiation's Influence

Secondary Ionizing Radiation

The Earth and its atmosphere are continuously bombarded by cosmic rays originating from beyond the Solar System. These high-energy particles, primarily protons and atomic nuclei, interact with atmospheric atoms to produce extensive air showers of secondary ionizing radiation, including X-rays, muons, and electrons. This secondary radiation ensures the atmosphere remains weakly conductive.

Balancing Atmospheric Currents

The ionization generated by cosmic rays leads to a slight current flow over the Earth's surface. This current plays a vital role in balancing the electrical current generated by thunderstorms, contributing to the overall stability of the global atmospheric electrical circuit. The characteristic parameters of these ions, such as mobility and lifetime, vary significantly with altitude.

Thunderstorms and Lightning

The Atmosphere's Battery

Thunderstorms function as massive atmospheric batteries, generating substantial potential differences—up to 400,000 volts—between the upper atmosphere (electrosphere) and the Earth's surface. This charge separation within cumulonimbus clouds, driven by collisions between ice particles and graupel, is the precursor to lightning.

Lightning Phenomena

Lightning discharges are rapid releases of atmospheric charge. A typical cloud-to-ground lightning bolt can carry tens of thousands of amperes and millions of volts, emitting light, radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays. The plasma temperature within lightning channels can reach extreme levels, approaching 28,000 Kelvin. The energy released by an average thunderstorm is immense, comparable to a 20-kiloton nuclear warhead.

Corona Discharges (St. Elmo's Fire)

St. Elmo's Fire is a visible electrical discharge, a form of plasma, occurring from grounded objects like spires or animal heads during thunderstorms. It arises from a coronal discharge caused by strong electric fields ionizing surrounding air molecules. While often mistaken for ball lightning, it is a distinct phenomenon, typically glowing blue or violet due to nitrogen and oxygen excitation.

Earth-Ionosphere Cavity

Resonant Electromagnetic Waves

The space between the Earth's surface and the conductive ionosphere acts as a natural waveguide. This cavity resonates with electromagnetic waves, particularly in the extremely low frequency (ELF) range, creating Schumann resonances. These resonances are primarily excited by the global network of lightning discharges.

Electrical System Grounding

Dissipating Atmospheric Charge

Atmospheric charges can accumulate on overhead power distribution systems, posing a risk of dangerous discharge. To mitigate this, electrical systems are connected to the Earth at multiple points, commonly at each support pole. This grounding provides a path for atmospheric charge to dissipate safely.

Protective Earth and Redundancy

The "protective earth" wire serves to dissipate accumulated charge and provides a high-current path for short circuits, enabling fuses to blow and preventing damage to equipment or hazards to users. Each transformer in an AC grid segments the grounding system, requiring grounding on one side to prevent charge buildup relative to other parts of the network.

Teacher's Corner

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

Edit and Print Materials from this study in the wiki2web studio

Click here to open the "Atmospheric Electricity" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit

Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Learn about atmospheric_electricity while playing the wiki2web Clarity Challenge game.

Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!

Play now

Explore More Topics

Discover other topics to study!

orchard sports injury and illness classification system

gao

mohammedan sc kolkata

2026 fifa world cup

abu sufyan ibn harb

on air with aib

treaty of guadalupe hidalgo

bucharest

biochemistry

peking man

References

See Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning

Vladimir A. Rakov, Martin A. Uman (2003) Lightning: Physics and Effects. Cambridge University Press

Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism - Page 359

A full list of references for this article are available at the Atmospheric electricity Wikipedia page

Feedback & Support

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page has been meticulously generated by an Artificial Intelligence, drawing upon a comprehensive analysis of publicly available data. It is intended solely for advanced informational and educational purposes, targeting higher education students and researchers.

This content is not a substitute for professional scientific consultation. The information provided herein is based on a snapshot of data and may not be entirely exhaustive, up-to-date, or applicable to all specific contexts. Always consult peer-reviewed literature, official scientific documentation, and qualified experts for critical research, practical applications, or safety-related decisions.

The creators of this page assume no liability for any errors, omissions, or consequences arising from the use of this information.

Atmospheric Electricity

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Historical Foundations 🕰️

⚡ Early Observations and Hypotheses

🔬 Franklin's Groundbreaking Work

🌍 Expanding the Understanding

📊 Systematic Measurement and Theory

The Nature of Atmospheric Electricity 🌌

🔌 The Global Electrical Circuit

🔋 Atmospheric Potential Gradient

💨 Ionization and Conductivity

Temporal and Environmental Variations ⏳

📈 The Carnegie Curve

🌫️ Influence of Local Conditions

Biological Interactions 🦋

🌸 Navigation and Dispersal

🦠 Biogenic Charge Sources

🌍 Subsurface Processes

Atmospheric Electricity and Near Space 🚀

🛰️ The Electrosphere

☀️ Ionization by Solar Radiation

Cosmic Radiation's Influence 🌠

💥 Secondary Ionizing Radiation

⚖️ Balancing Atmospheric Currents

Thunderstorms and Lightning ⛈️

⚡ The Atmosphere's Battery

🌩️ Lightning Phenomena

✨ Corona Discharges (St. Elmo's Fire)

Earth-Ionosphere Cavity 🧲

📡 Resonant Electromagnetic Waves

Electrical System Grounding 🔗

🔌 Dissipating Atmospheric Charge

🛡️ Protective Earth and Redundancy

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Historical Foundations

Early Observations and Hypotheses

Franklin's Groundbreaking Work

Expanding the Understanding

Systematic Measurement and Theory

The Nature of Atmospheric Electricity

The Global Electrical Circuit

Atmospheric Potential Gradient

Ionization and Conductivity

Temporal and Environmental Variations

The Carnegie Curve

Influence of Local Conditions

Biological Interactions

Navigation and Dispersal

Biogenic Charge Sources

Subsurface Processes

Atmospheric Electricity and Near Space

The Electrosphere

Ionization by Solar Radiation

Cosmic Radiation's Influence

Secondary Ionizing Radiation

Balancing Atmospheric Currents

Thunderstorms and Lightning

The Atmosphere's Battery

Lightning Phenomena

Corona Discharges (St. Elmo's Fire)

Earth-Ionosphere Cavity

Resonant Electromagnetic Waves

Electrical System Grounding

Dissipating Atmospheric Charge

Protective Earth and Redundancy

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice