What was the Attack on Pearl Harbor and when did it occur?

The Attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor in Oahu, Territory of Hawaii. The attack occurred on the morning of December 7, 1941, a date which U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt famously described as 'a date which will live in infamy.' At the time of the attack, the United States was officially a neutral country in World War II.

What were the different names Japan used for the Attack on Pearl Harbor?

The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack by several names. It was officially known as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI. During its planning phase, it was referred to as Operation Z.

What was the immediate consequence of the Attack on Pearl Harbor for the United States?

The immediate and most significant consequence of the attack was the United States' entry into World War II. The day after the attack, on December 8, 1941, the U.S. formally declared war on Japan, ending its period of neutrality.

What diplomatic negotiations preceded the attack on Pearl Harbor?

Months of negotiations between the U.S. and Japan preceded the attack, focusing on the future of the Pacific. Japan demanded that the U.S. end its economic sanctions, stop aiding China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, and grant Japan access to the resources of the Dutch East Indies. The U.S. counter-proposal, known as the Hull note, demanded that Japan withdraw completely from China and French Indochina. These negotiations failed to resolve the escalating tensions between the two nations.

Who was the primary planner of the attack, and what was his strategic goal?

Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the commander of Japan's Combined Fleet, planned the attack as a pre-emptive strike. His primary strategic goal was to cripple the U.S. Pacific Fleet, thereby preventing it from interfering with Japan's planned military actions in Southeast Asia. Yamamoto hoped this decisive blow would allow Japan to make rapid territorial gains and negotiate a favorable peace settlement.

What other territories did Japan attack in coordination with the Pearl Harbor strike?

In a coordinated offensive spanning over seven hours, Japan launched attacks on multiple U.S. and British territories. The U.S.-held territories attacked included the Philippines, Guam, and Wake Island. The British Empire was attacked in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong.

What time did the attack on Pearl Harbor begin, and how many Japanese aircraft were involved?

The attack, commanded by Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, began at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time on December 7, 1941. The base was attacked by a total of 353 Japanese aircraft, which included fighters, level and dive bombers, and torpedo bombers, launched in two separate waves from six aircraft carriers.

What was the extent of the damage to the U.S. battleships present at Pearl Harbor?

Of the eight U.S. battleships present at the harbor, all were damaged. Four of them were sunk: the USS Arizona, USS Oklahoma, USS West Virginia, and USS California. However, all but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six of the eight battleships were eventually returned to service during the war.

What were the total American casualties resulting from the attack?

The attack resulted in a total of 2,403 American deaths and 1,178 wounded. The fatalities included 2,008 sailors, 109 Marines, 218 soldiers, and 68 civilians. This made it the deadliest foreign attack on the U.S. until the September 11 attacks in 2001.

What were the Japanese losses in terms of personnel and equipment?

Japan's losses were significantly lower than those of the United States. They lost a total of 29 aircraft and five midget submarines. In terms of personnel, 129 Japanese soldiers and sailors were killed, and one sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured, becoming the first Japanese prisoner of war.

Which key assets at Pearl Harbor were fortunately not present or not targeted during the attack?

Crucially, the three U.S. aircraft carriers stationed at Pearl Harbor—the USS Enterprise, USS Lexington, and USS Saratoga—were at sea and thus escaped the attack. Additionally, the Japanese forces did not target important base installations, including the oil storage facilities, submarine base, and naval repair yards, which proved vital for the U.S. war effort in the Pacific.

How did Germany and Italy respond to the attack on Pearl Harbor?

On December 11, 1941, four days after the attack, Germany and Italy each declared war on the United States. They did so despite having no formal obligation under the Tripartite Pact to join Japan's conflict with the U.S. The United States responded in kind, with a declaration of war against both Germany and Italy on the same day.

What were the long-term geopolitical tensions that formed the background for the attack?

War between Japan and the U.S. had been considered a possibility since the 1920s. Japan was wary of American expansion in the Pacific, particularly the annexation of Hawaii and the Philippines, which it viewed as being within its sphere of influence. Furthermore, Japanese strategic thinkers believed that economic self-sufficiency, especially access to resources like iron and oil, was necessary to wage a modern war, leading to expansionist policies in Asia that clashed with American interests.

How did Japan's invasion of China and French Indochina escalate tensions with the United States?

Japan's expansion into China, leading to the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and its invasion of French Indochina in 1940, were major points of conflict. These actions led the U.S. to impose sanctions, halting shipments of airplanes, machine tools, and aviation gasoline. The final trigger was the U.S. ceasing all oil exports to Japan in July 1941 after Japan seized French Indochina, a move that prompted Japan to proceed with plans to take the oil-rich Dutch East Indies.

What was the 'Hull note' and what was its significance in the timeline leading to the attack?

The Hull note was the American counter-proposal to Japan's final offer, delivered on November 26, 1941. It required Japan to completely and unconditionally evacuate China and conclude non-aggression pacts with Pacific powers. The Japanese leadership viewed this note as an ultimatum that would 'destroy the fruits of the China incident.' The Japanese naval task force had already departed for Pearl Harbor on the same day in Japan, just before the note was officially delivered.

What was the inspiration for the Japanese military's plan to attack Pearl Harbor?

The Japanese planners, including Admiral Yamamoto's staff, intensively studied the successful 1940 British air attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto. In that battle, British torpedo bombers launched from an aircraft carrier crippled the Italian fleet in a shallow harbor, demonstrating the viability of such an operation. This provided a key tactical model for the Pearl Harbor strike.

What was Emperor Hirohito's role in approving the attack plan?

Emperor Hirohito did not approve the attack plan until November 5, 1941, after several Imperial Conferences. Although initially hesitant about war, he gave his final authorization on December 1, after a majority of his leaders advised him that the American 'Hull note' was unacceptable. He became more involved in military matters leading up to the attack, seeking more information and, according to an aide, displayed happiness upon hearing of its success.

Why did American officials doubt that Pearl Harbor would be Japan's first target?

American officials and military planners doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target, expecting an attack on the Philippines instead. This belief was based on the strategic threat that air and naval bases in the Philippines posed to Japanese sea lanes and supply routes from Southeast Asia. They also incorrectly assumed that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.

What were the primary objectives of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor?

The attack had several major objectives. First, to destroy important American fleet units to prevent interference with Japan's conquest of Southeast Asia. Second, to buy time for Japan to consolidate its position and increase its naval strength. Third, to deliver a severe blow to America's ability to mobilize by targeting battleships, which were the prestige ships of the era. Finally, Japan hoped the attack would undermine American morale so severely that the U.S. would seek a peace compromise.

What were the known disadvantages of attacking the U.S. fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor?

The Japanese planners were aware of two distinct disadvantages. First, the shallow water of the harbor meant that sunken ships could be relatively easily salvaged and repaired. Second, since many crew members would be on shore leave or could be rescued from the harbor, personnel losses would be less than in a battle at sea. A further critical disadvantage was the absence of all three of the Pacific Fleet's aircraft carriers on the day of the attack.

What was the composition of the Japanese 'Striking Force' that set out for Pearl Harbor?

The Japanese task force, known as the Striking Force or Kido Butai, departed from the Kuril Islands on November 26, 1941. It consisted of six aircraft carriers—Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū, Shōkaku, and Zuikaku—which carried a total of 408 aircraft intended for the attack and for defensive air patrols.

How were Japanese aerial torpedoes specially adapted for the shallow waters of Pearl Harbor?

The Japanese adapted their Type 91 aerial torpedoes specifically for the attack. Conventional torpedoes would dive too deep in the shallow 42-foot average depth of Pearl Harbor. Borrowing an idea from the British attack on Taranto, they fitted the torpedoes with special anti-roll mechanisms and wooden rudder extensions. These modifications allowed the torpedoes to operate in the shallow water and effectively strike the hulls of the battleships.

What was the role of Japanese midget submarines in the attack?

Five large I-class submarines each carried a Type A midget submarine to the waters off Oahu. These two-man subs were launched with the mission to penetrate the harbor and attack warships with their torpedoes. Four were sunk and one was grounded and its pilot, Kazuo Sakamaki, captured. While their overall success is debated, they were responsible for some of the first hostile actions of the day, including an encounter with the USS Ward before the air raid began.

What was the first hostile action taken by American forces on December 7, 1941?

The first American shots of the Pacific Theater were fired at 6:37 a.m. Hawaiian time, over an hour before the air attack began. The destroyer USS Ward, alerted by the minesweeper USS Condor to a periscope sighting, located and sank a Japanese midget submarine at the entrance to Pearl Harbor.

How was the approaching first wave of Japanese planes detected, and why was this warning ignored?

The first wave of 183 Japanese planes was detected by a U.S. Army SCR-270 radar at Opana Point on Oahu. The operators reported the large target to the Intercept Center at Fort Shafter. However, the newly assigned officer on duty, Lieutenant Kermit A. Tyler, presumed the radar contact was a scheduled arrival of six B-17 bombers from California. The Japanese planes were approaching from a similar direction, and the operators did not emphasize the unusually large size of the formation, leading Tyler to dismiss the report.

Describe the composition and targets of the first wave of the Japanese air attack.

The first wave, led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida, consisted of 183 aircraft. It was divided into three groups: a first group of 49 bombers with armor-piercing bombs and 40 bombers with torpedoes targeting battleships and carriers; a second group of 51 dive bombers targeting Ford Island and Wheeler Field; and a third group of 43 Zero fighters tasked with air control and strafing aircraft on the ground at various airfields.

What was the state of American military readiness at Pearl Harbor when the attack began?

The American military was caught largely unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft were parked wingtip-to-wingtip in the open to prevent sabotage rather than to facilitate quick takeoff, and most anti-aircraft guns were unmanned. According to the source, only a quarter of the Navy's machine guns and just four of 31 Army anti-aircraft batteries were able to get into action.

Describe the composition and targets of the second wave of the Japanese air attack.

The second wave, commanded by Lieutenant-Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki, consisted of 171 planes. It included 54 B5N bombers armed with general-purpose bombs targeting hangars and aircraft on Ford Island, Hickam Field, and other airfields. It also had a group of 78 D3A dive bombers targeting aircraft carriers and cruisers, and a group of 35 A6M Zero fighters for defense and strafing.

What happened to the USS Arizona during the attack?

The USS Arizona was hit by four armor-piercing bombs. One of these bombs, a modified 16-inch shell, penetrated its forward deck and detonated the ship's forward magazine. The resulting catastrophic explosion destroyed the ship and killed 1,177 of its crewmen, accounting for nearly half of all American fatalities during the attack. The ship was a total loss and was not salvaged, later becoming a war memorial.

How did the USS Nevada distinguish itself during the attack?

Despite being damaged by a torpedo and on fire, the USS Nevada was the only battleship to attempt to get underway and exit the harbor. As it moved, it became a primary target for Japanese bombers and sustained more bomb hits. To avoid the risk of sinking in the narrow channel and blocking the harbor entrance, it was deliberately beached by its crew.

What was the fate of the destroyers USS Cassin and USS Downes?

The destroyers USS Cassin and USS Downes were in dry dock alongside the battleship USS Pennsylvania. They were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers, causing massive fires. The effort to fight the fires by flooding the dry dock caused the burning oil to rise, burning out both ships. The Cassin slipped from its keel blocks and rolled against the Downes. Both were later reconstructed and returned to service.

How many American aircraft were destroyed or damaged in the attack?

Of the 402 American aircraft in Hawaii at the time of the attack, a total of 188 were destroyed and 159 were damaged. The vast majority of these, 155, were hit while they were still on the ground, parked wingtip to wingtip.

Why did Vice Admiral Nagumo decide against launching a third wave of attacks?

Vice Admiral Nagumo decided to withdraw without a third strike for several reasons. American anti-aircraft fire had become much more effective during the second wave, causing two-thirds of Japan's aircraft losses. He was concerned about the unknown location of the U.S. carriers and the risk of a counterattack from surviving American planes. A third wave would also require a lengthy turnaround time, forcing planes to land on carriers at night, a risky maneuver. Finally, he was concerned about his task force's fuel supply and believed the mission's main objective of neutralizing the Pacific Fleet had been achieved.

What was the strategic consequence of Nagumo's decision not to launch a third strike?

By not launching a third strike, Nagumo spared Pearl Harbor's vital shore facilities, including the navy repair yards, oil tank farms, and submarine base. Military historians and later Admiral Chester W. Nimitz argued that destroying these facilities would have been far more crippling to the U.S. war effort than sinking the battleships. Their survival allowed Pearl Harbor to remain a crucial logistical support base, which enabled the U.S. to mount operations like the Doolittle Raid and the Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway much sooner than would have otherwise been possible.

What was the process and outcome of the salvage operations at Pearl Harbor?

Following the attack, a massive salvage operation was led by Captain Homer N. Wallin. Navy divers and civilian contractors worked for over a year, patching holes, clearing debris, and pumping water out of the sunken ships. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were refloated and sent for extensive repairs. In total, of the twenty-one ships damaged or lost, all but three (USS Arizona, USS Utah, and USS Oklahoma) were eventually repaired and returned to service.

How was the news of the attack first reported in the United States?

The first official announcement was made by White House Press Secretary Stephen Early at 2:22 p.m. Eastern Time. The news moved on wires around 2:25 p.m., and the first public radio broadcast was on the CBS network's 'World News Today' program at 2:30 p.m. Eastern Time, where announcer John Charles Daly read the initial report. News reports interrupted scheduled programming, but only briefly at first.

How did the Japanese public learn about the attack on Pearl Harbor?

The Japanese press, which was heavily censored, did cover the attack. The newspaper 'The Asahi Shimbun' reported on the attack the day it occurred and framed the subsequent declaration of war as an Imperial Order. The state broadcaster NHK also covered the news positively, though the first announcement that Japan had 'entered into a situation of war' came before any detailed explanation of the attack itself.

What was the 'Niihau Incident' and what was its impact?

The Niihau Incident involved a Japanese Zero pilot, Petty Officer Shigenori Nishikaichi, who crash-landed on the Hawaiian island of Niihau after the attack. The island's residents were initially unaware of the attack. Nishikaichi then enlisted the help of three Japanese-American residents to try and recover his sensitive documents. The resulting conflict led to Nishikaichi's death and the imprisonment of his collaborators. The incident fueled concerns among many Americans that Japanese Americans could not be trusted, which contributed to the support for their subsequent internment.

What was the impact of the Pearl Harbor attack on Japanese Americans?

A major consequence of the attack and the subsequent Niihau Incident was the internment of Japanese Americans. Within hours of the attack, hundreds of Japanese-American leaders were arrested. Eventually, over 110,000 Japanese Americans, primarily those living on the West Coast, were forcibly relocated to internment camps. In Hawaii, where they composed over a third of the population, a smaller number, between 1,200 and 1,800, were interned.

What was the strategic flaw in Japan's focus on sinking battleships?

The Japanese strategic thinking was flawed because it was based on the Mahanian doctrine that the ultimate naval battles would be fought by battleships. This led them to prioritize sinking battleships while ignoring the U.S. aircraft carriers, which were at sea. The war ultimately proved that aircraft carriers, not battleships, were the new capital ships of naval warfare. The surviving U.S. carriers allowed the Navy to conduct offensive operations, while the salvaged battleships, due to their low speed, were relegated mainly to shore bombardment roles.

What is the 'Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge conspiracy theory'?

This is a conspiracy theory arguing that high-level officials in the American and British governments, possibly including President Roosevelt, knew about the attack in advance and allowed it to happen. The motive, according to the theory, was to force a reluctant American public into World War II. However, the article states that this theory is rejected by mainstream historians.

What details are provided in the article's main photograph caption?

The source includes a photograph of Battleship Row taken from a Japanese plane at the beginning of the attack. The caption identifies an explosion in the center as a torpedo striking the USS West Virginia. It also points out two attacking Japanese planes: one flying over the USS Neosho and another over the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard.

Who were the primary commanders for the United States and Japan during the attack?

For the United States, the commanders listed are Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, who was Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet, and Lieutenant General Walter Short, who was the commanding general of the U.S. Army's Hawaiian Department. For Japan, the commanders were Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander of the Combined Fleet who planned the attack, and Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, who commanded the carrier Striking Force that executed the attack.

What was the fate of the USS Oklahoma after the attack?

The USS Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, with the last two striking above her belt armor, which caused the battleship to capsize. It was deemed a total loss. Although it was successfully salvaged and raised, it was never repaired. The hull sank in May 1947 while being towed to the mainland for scrapping.

What awards were given to American servicemen for their actions during the attack?

In the wake of the attack, numerous awards for valor were given to American servicemen. These included fifteen Medals of Honor, fifty-one Navy Crosses, fifty-three Silver Stars, four Navy and Marine Corps Medals, one Distinguished Flying Cross, four Distinguished Service Crosses, one Distinguished Service Medal, and three Bronze Star Medals. A special award, the Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal, was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack.

Attack On Pearl Harbor Wiki: Day of Infamy: A Scholarly Dissection of the Pearl Harbor Attack

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Background: The Road to War

Diplomatic Deterioration

The prospect of war between the Empire of Japan and the United States had been a strategic consideration since the 1920s. Tensions escalated following Japan's 1931 invasion of Manchuria and its subsequent expansion into China. Events like the 1937 attack on the USS Panay and the Nanking Massacre turned Western public opinion sharply against Japan. In response, the U.S. enacted sanctions, halting shipments of vital materials like airplanes and aviation gasoline in 1940, and culminating in a full oil embargo in July 1941 after Japan's occupation of French Indochina.

Strategic Imperatives

Japan's military ambitions required vast resources, particularly oil, which it could not source domestically. The U.S. oil embargo forced Japan's hand, compelling it to proceed with the "Southern Operation"—a plan to seize the oil-rich Dutch East Indies. To prevent the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering, a preemptive strike was deemed necessary. In mid-1940, President Roosevelt moved the fleet from San Diego to Pearl Harbor as a deterrent, a move that ironically placed it within the perceived strike range of the Imperial Japanese Navy.

The Final Negotiations

Throughout 1941, diplomatic negotiations faltered. Japan's final proposal on November 20 offered a withdrawal from southern Indochina in exchange for the lifting of sanctions and an end to aid for China. The American counter-proposal, the "Hull note" of November 26, demanded a complete and unconditional withdrawal of all Japanese forces from China. This was seen as an ultimatum in Tokyo. The day before the note was even delivered, the Japanese naval task force had already departed from its staging area, steaming towards Hawaii.

The Plan of Attack

Yamamoto's Gambit

The plan for a surprise attack was conceived by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Commander-in-Chief of Japan's Combined Fleet. Despite significant opposition from the Naval General Staff, who favored a more traditional decisive fleet battle, Yamamoto championed the carrier-based air strike. He threatened to resign to force its approval. Full-scale planning, led by Commander Minoru Genda, began in early 1941. Planners intensively studied the successful 1940 British torpedo bomber raid on the Italian fleet at Taranto, which demonstrated the feasibility of an aerial attack on ships in a shallow harbor.

Core Objectives

The attack had several strategic aims. Primarily, it sought to neutralize the U.S. Pacific Fleet, preventing it from interfering with Japan's conquest of Southeast Asia. Secondly, it was intended to buy Japan time to fortify its new perimeter and build up its naval strength. Thirdly, by targeting the prestigious battleships, Japan hoped to deliver a catastrophic blow to American morale, believing it might lead the U.S. to negotiate a peace settlement favorable to Japanese interests in the Pacific.

The Striking Force

The attack force, known as the Kido Butai, was a formidable armada commanded by Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo. It sailed under strict radio silence from the Kuril Islands on November 26, 1941. The final authorization from Emperor Hirohito was given on December 1. The core of the force was its six aircraft carriers, which would launch two waves of aircraft against Oahu.

Akagi (Flagship)
Kaga
Sōryū
Hiryū
Shōkaku
Zuikaku

Together, these carriers embarked over 400 aircraft, with 353 designated to participate in the two attack waves.

The Attack Unfolds

The First Wave

At 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time, the assault began. The first wave of 183 aircraft, led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida, struck the island. Torpedo bombers targeted the capital ships on Battleship Row, using specially modified torpedoes designed for Pearl Harbor's shallow waters. Simultaneously, dive bombers and fighters strafed airfields at Hickam, Wheeler, and Ford Island to eliminate air resistance. The approaching wave was detected by an Army radar station at Opana Point, but it was tragically dismissed by an inexperienced officer as a flight of American B-17 bombers expected from the mainland.

The Second Wave

A second wave of 171 aircraft, commanded by Lieutenant-Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki, arrived approximately an hour later. This wave focused on finishing off damaged ships and further destroying airfields and hangars. By this time, American anti-aircraft fire had become significantly more intense, and two-thirds of Japan's aircraft losses for the day occurred during this second phase. Despite the ferocity of the attack, the second wave failed to target the base's critical infrastructure, such as the oil storage depots and repair facilities.

The Debate Over a Third Wave

Several junior officers, including Fuchida and Genda, urged Admiral Nagumo to launch a third strike to destroy Pearl Harbor's vital shore facilities. However, Nagumo decided to withdraw. His decision remains a subject of historical debate, but his reasoning was based on several factors.

Increased Resistance: American anti-aircraft fire was much heavier during the second wave, suggesting a third would face even greater opposition and higher losses.
Unknown Carrier Location: The three U.S. aircraft carriers were not in port, and their location was unknown. Nagumo feared a counterattack on his own fleet.
Logistical Constraints: A third wave would require recovering, re-arming, and re-launching aircraft, pushing the operation into the night—a risky maneuver for which Japanese pilots were not trained. The fleet was also at the limit of its fuel supply.
Mission Accomplished: Nagumo believed the primary objective—neutralizing the U.S. battleship fleet—had been achieved. He prioritized the conservation of his forces over total destruction of the enemy base.

Casualties and Damage

American Losses

The attack was a devastating blow. In total, 2,403 Americans were killed, including 2,008 sailors, 218 soldiers, 109 Marines, and 68 civilians. Another 1,178 were wounded. Nearly half of the fatalities occurred on the USS Arizona when a bomb detonated its forward magazine. Eight battleships were sunk or damaged, along with numerous other cruisers, destroyers, and auxiliary vessels. Over 180 aircraft were destroyed, most of them on the ground.

Japanese Losses

In stark contrast, Japanese losses were minimal, a testament to the element of surprise. Japan lost only 29 aircraft out of the 353 that participated in the raid. Additionally, all five of the midget submarines launched to infiltrate the harbor were lost. In total, 55 Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed, and one submariner, Kazuo Sakamaki, became the first Japanese prisoner of war captured by the United States.

Detailed Naval Damage Report

Of the eight U.S. battleships present, all were damaged and four were sunk. However, the shallow harbor meant that all but the USS Arizona and USS Oklahoma were eventually raised and returned to service during the war.

Ship Name	Type	Damage	Fate
USS Arizona	Battleship	Hit by bombs, forward magazine exploded	Total loss, now a memorial
USS Oklahoma	Battleship	Hit by multiple torpedoes, capsized	Total loss, salvaged but sank under tow
USS West Virginia	Battleship	Hit by 7 torpedoes and 2 bombs, sunk	Returned to service July 1944
USS California	Battleship	Hit by 2 torpedoes and 2 bombs, sunk	Returned to service January 1944
USS Nevada	Battleship	Hit by 1 torpedo and 6 bombs, beached	Returned to service October 1942
USS Tennessee	Battleship	Hit by 2 bombs, moderate damage	Returned to service February 1942
USS Maryland	Battleship	Hit by 2 bombs, light damage	Returned to service February 1942
USS Pennsylvania	Battleship	In dry dock, hit by 1 bomb, light damage	Remained in service
USS Utah	Target Ship	Hit by 2 torpedoes, capsized	Total loss, remains in harbor
USS Helena, Raleigh, Honolulu	Cruisers	Damaged	All returned to service
USS Cassin, Downes, Shaw	Destroyers	Heavily damaged/destroyed	All reconstructed/repaired

Aftermath: A Nation at War

"A Date Which Will Live in Infamy"

The day after the attack, President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed a joint session of Congress, famously declaring December 7, 1941, "a date which will live in infamy." Within an hour, Congress formally declared war on the Empire of Japan with only one dissenting vote. The attack shattered American isolationism and unified the nation behind the war effort. On December 11, Germany and Italy, honoring the Tripartite Pact, declared war on the United States, officially bringing the U.S. into the global conflict on two fronts.

International Consequences

The attack had immediate global repercussions. The United Kingdom, already at war with Germany, declared war on Japan nine hours before the U.S. did. The initial Japanese offensive was a stunning success, with coordinated attacks on the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong. The sinking of the British battleships HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse just three days later left Japan as the supreme naval power across the vast expanse of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, leaving the Allies, in Winston Churchill's words, "weak and naked."

Internment of Japanese Americans

A tragic consequence of the attack was the internment of Japanese Americans. Fueled by war hysteria and long-standing prejudice, and exacerbated by events like the Niihau Incident—where a downed Japanese pilot received aid from local Japanese-American residents—the U.S. government authorized the forced relocation of over 110,000 people of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast to internment camps in the interior of the country for the duration of the war.

Legacy and Historical Debate

A Strategic Miscalculation?

While a stunning tactical victory, many historians, including Japanese Admiral Chūichi Hara, argue the attack was a strategic blunder that "lost the war." The attack failed to destroy the three American aircraft carriers, which were at sea and would prove decisive in later battles like Midway. Furthermore, Nagumo's failure to order a third strike left Pearl Harbor's vital oil storage, submarine base, and repair facilities intact. This allowed the U.S. to sustain its operations and mount a counter-offensive far sooner than Japan had anticipated.

The Salvage and Resurrection

The salvage operation at Pearl Harbor was one of the greatest engineering feats of the war. Under the direction of Captain Homer N. Wallin, divers and engineers worked for over a year in hazardous conditions. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were refloated and sent for repair. Ultimately, six of the eight battleships sunk or damaged on December 7 returned to fight, serving primarily in shore bombardment roles and participating in the final great battleship engagement in history at the Battle of Surigao Strait.

The Intelligence Debate

The question of why the U.S. was caught so unprepared has been debated for decades. While war games in the 1930s had demonstrated Pearl Harbor's vulnerability, American officials largely expected the first Japanese strike to fall on the Philippines. Some writers have promoted conspiracy theories suggesting that President Roosevelt had advance knowledge and allowed the attack to occur to force the U.S. into the war. However, these theories are overwhelmingly rejected by mainstream historians, who attribute the failure to a combination of conflicting intelligence, underestimation of Japanese capabilities, and communication breakdowns.

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References

Unless otherwise stated, all vessels listed were salvageable.[4]

For the Japanese designator of Oahu.[13]

In 1941, Hawaii was half an hour different from the majority of other time zones. See UTCâ10:30.

Odd though it may sound, "not" is correct, in keeping with standard Navy telegraphic practice. This was confirmed by Beloite and Beloite after years of research and debate.

USAAF pilots of the 46th and 47th Pursuit Squadrons, 15th Pursuit Group, claim to have destroyed ten. Overall, the Americans claimed to have shot down 41 Japanese aircraft.

Gailey 1997, p. 96: "There were 103 civilian casualties, including 68 dead."

Gruhl 2007, p. 39

Gruhl 2007, p. 40

Morton 1962, ch. IV: The Fatal Turn

Morton 1962, ch. V: The Decision for War

Goldstein & Dillon 2000, p. 146

United States Strategic Bombing Survey 1946, p. 19

Prange, Goldstein & Dillon 1981, pp. 493â494.

Prange, Goldstein & Dillon 1981, p. 485. "[The] fourteenth part was not a formal declaration of war. It did not even rupture diplomatic relations. It merely broke off the discussions."

Prange, Goldstein & Dillon 1981, pp. 500â501

Watson 2007, p. 592

United States Strategic Bombing Survey 1946, p. 18

"Planes Blast U.S. Naval Bases; No Warning Is Given", Lawton Constitution, December 7, 1941, Extra Edition, at 1.

Liddell Hart 1971, p. 206

Shirer 1960, p. 873

Keegan 1990, p. 130

Prados 1995, pp. 161â177.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Attack on Pearl Harbor Wikipedia page

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This is not professional historical advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for scholarly historical research or consultation with qualified historians. Always refer to primary sources and peer-reviewed academic works for definitive historical analysis. Never disregard professional historical advice because of something you have read on this website.

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Sunrise Over the Pacific

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Background: The Road to War 🗺️

🌐 Diplomatic Deterioration

⚙️ Strategic Imperatives

✒️ The Final Negotiations

The Plan of Attack 🎯

💡 Yamamoto's Gambit

🏆 Core Objectives

🚢 The Striking Force

The Attack Unfolds ✈️

1️⃣ The First Wave

2️⃣ The Second Wave

❓ The Debate Over a Third Wave

Casualties and Damage 💥

🇺🇸 American Losses

🇯🇵 Japanese Losses

📊 Detailed Naval Damage Report

Aftermath: A Nation at War ⚖️

🗣️ "A Date Which Will Live in Infamy"

🌍 International Consequences

🔒 Internment of Japanese Americans

Legacy and Historical Debate 🏛️

🤔 A Strategic Miscalculation?

🛠️ The Salvage and Resurrection

❓ The Intelligence Debate

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Background: The Road to War

Diplomatic Deterioration

Strategic Imperatives

The Final Negotiations

The Plan of Attack

Yamamoto's Gambit

Core Objectives

The Striking Force

The Attack Unfolds

The First Wave

The Second Wave

The Debate Over a Third Wave

Casualties and Damage

American Losses

Japanese Losses

Detailed Naval Damage Report

Aftermath: A Nation at War

"A Date Which Will Live in Infamy"

International Consequences

Internment of Japanese Americans

Legacy and Historical Debate

A Strategic Miscalculation?

The Salvage and Resurrection

The Intelligence Debate

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice