What is Belonogaster petiolata, and where is it primarily found?

Belonogaster petiolata is a species of primitively eusocial wasp. It is predominantly found in southern Africa, inhabiting temperate or subhumid climate zones, with a significant presence in South Africa, including areas like northern Johannesburg and specific cave systems such as the Sterkfontein Caves. Eusociality refers to a complex social structure where individuals cooperate in brood care and there is a division of labor, often with a reproductive queen and non-reproductive workers.

What are the primary food sources for Belonogaster petiolata?

The diet of Belonogaster petiolata consists of both solid food and liquid food. Solid food primarily includes small insects, with caterpillars being a notable prey item. Liquid food is primarily nectar. The wasps also require water for survival.

Can you outline the scientific classification of Belonogaster petiolata from its family down to its species?

Belonogaster petiolata belongs to the family Vespidae, within the subfamily Polistinae and the tribe Ropalidiini. Its genus is Belonogaster, and the species name is petiolata. This classification places it within the order Hymenoptera, which includes ants, bees, and wasps.

How is Belonogaster petiolata taxonomically related to other wasps, and what does its family represent in terms of social organization?

Belonogaster petiolata is part of the genus Belonogaster, which is closely related to species like B. juncea and B. grisea. This genus is within the family Vespidae and the order Hymenoptera. Species within the Vespidae family exhibit a wide spectrum of social organization, ranging from entirely solitary lifestyles to highly complex eusocial structures.

What are the key morphological features that distinguish Belonogaster petiolata wasps?

Belonogaster petiolata wasps are characterized by a distinct thorax, to which their legs are attached, and a longer, striped gaster that terminates in a sting. The peduncle, which is the first segment of the gaster, is also a notable feature. These physical attributes help in identifying the species and understanding its anatomy.

How do the physical characteristics of a queen B. petiolata differ from those of a worker wasp?

Queen B. petiolata wasps typically possess a larger gaster and a smaller head compared to worker wasps, who have relatively larger heads and smaller gasters. Furthermore, queens and other members of the reproductive caste store larger fat reserves than workers, which aids their survival during colder periods.

How do B. petiolata wasps construct their nests, and what materials do they use?

Belonogaster petiolata constructs nests made of paper, created from a pulp material. This pulp is often sourced from chewed-up old nest cells or from larvae just before they mature. The wasps facilitate the emergence of offspring by chewing the base of the cells, and this debris is then incorporated into the nest-building material.

What are the preferred climate conditions and specific locations where Belonogaster petiolata is found?

This species thrives in warm temperate or moist subhumid climate zones, with specific temperature ranges noted between a maximum of 25°C (77°F) and a minimum of 14.9°C (58.8°F) in January, and a maximum of 15.7°C (60.3°F) to a minimum of 5.3°C (41.5°F) in June. They are abundant in southern Africa, particularly South Africa, and often reside in sheltered caves, building their nests on the cave walls.

Describe the typical annual nesting cycle of Belonogaster petiolata.

The annual nesting cycle begins in August with nests being initiated by overwintered foundress females. This cycle progresses through distinct phases: a pre-emergence period before the first worker offspring appear, followed by a post-emergence period. The post-emergence period includes a pre-matrifilial phase where subordinate foundresses are present, and then a matrifilial phase after subordinates disappear. Finally, a reproductive phase occurs where reproductive offspring (gynes and males) are produced.

How do colonies of B. petiolata start, and what is the typical duration of the overwintering period for foundresses?

Colonies are typically initiated by a single queen (foundress) in the spring, following an overwintering period of about 4.5 months. In about half of the cases, one or more additional females join the initial foundress, forming multiple-foundress colonies. These associations can grow quite large, with up to 16 foundresses observed.

What defines the different phases within the post-emergence period of a B. petiolata colony?

The post-emergence period is divided into two phases. The pre-matrifilial phase occurs first, characterized by the presence of subordinate foundresses who interact with the newly emerged worker wasps. Following this is the matrifilial phase, which begins after all subordinate foundresses have left the nest, leaving only the queen and her workers.

When does the reproductive phase of the B. petiolata colony cycle typically occur, and what is its significance?

The reproductive phase usually begins with the emergence of gynes (young queens) and males from the nests in early February. This phase is critical for the continuation of the species, as these reproductive individuals will disperse to mate and potentially start new colonies. Any females collected before the end of January are most likely workers.

How does the queen's role and activity change throughout the colony cycle, and what happens to her at the end of the season?

Initially, the queen actively participates in building and initiating the nest during the pre- and post-emergence periods. As the colony progresses, she becomes more lethargic, ceasing foraging and nest construction. At the end of the season, the queen leaves the nest to overwinter and returns the following year to establish a new colony.

What factors lead to the decline and eventual end of a B. petiolata colony?

Several factors contribute to colony decline. These include a cessation of solid food supply to larvae during the reproductive phase, a diminishing worker-to-larva ratio as workers are lost, and the prioritization of food for adults over brood. This often results in the abortion of brood to feed hungry adults, leading to the eventual abandonment of the nest.

What are the primary responsibilities of worker wasps versus the queen in a B. petiolata colony?

Worker wasps undertake nearly all the essential tasks, such as constructing and repairing the nest, foraging for food, and feeding the larvae. The queen's primary function is reproduction; she lays the eggs. This division of labor is fundamental to the colony's survival and efficiency.

How does the queen B. petiolata exert reproductive control over her workers?

When an active queen is present, worker wasps typically have undeveloped ovaries, a phenomenon known as reproductive suppression. However, if the queen is removed, a significant percentage of workers (around 11%) can develop mature ovaries and potentially lay eggs. The queen also practices oophagy, eating any eggs not laid by herself, which often belong to subordinates.

What methods does the queen B. petiolata use to establish and maintain her dominance within the colony?

The queen asserts dominance through various interactions, including biting, hooking, and soliciting. Hooking involves the queen grasping a subordinate and hanging from it while receiving regurgitated food. Soliciting involves the queen approaching another wasp with outstretched antennae, often touching its mouthparts, to elicit a response.

How do subordinate wasps typically respond to the queen's soliciting behavior?

Subordinate wasps usually respond to the queen's soliciting by either ignoring her, remaining immobile in a submissive posture until she leaves, or by soliciting back. These interactions help maintain the social hierarchy within the colony.

Who is primarily responsible for oophagy in B. petiolata colonies, and what is the typical outcome?

The queen is the primary perpetrator of oophagy, committing the majority (87.5%) of egg-eating incidents. While she mainly consumes eggs laid by subordinates, she may occasionally eat her own. This behavior helps regulate the number of offspring and ensures the queen's genetic lineage is prioritized.

What is trophallaxis in B. petiolata, and why do adult wasps engage in it?

Trophallaxis is an exchange of fluids, in this case, between adult wasps and larvae. Adult wasps feed larvae masticated food, and in return, the larvae produce salivary fluid rich in amino acids and nutrients. Female wasps, particularly those preparing to lay eggs, solicit this larval saliva to gain essential nutrients.

How do B. petiolata wasps typically solicit trophallaxis from larvae, and which larvae are preferred?

To solicit trophallaxis, a female wasp will often antennate a larva's head and vibrate its body. This prompts the larva to extend its head and produce a drop of saliva. Adult wasps tend to prefer soliciting older larvae, likely because they yield a greater quantity of saliva.

What are the key physiological and morphological distinctions between the reproductive and worker castes in B. petiolata?

Reproductive castes (foundresses and gynes) are generally larger than workers. They possess larger ovaries and higher fat content, which is crucial for overwintering and reproduction. Workers tend to have broader heads, while reproductive wasps have broader thoraces and gasters.

How does insemination status differentiate between castes in B. petiolata?

Foundresses and gynes are typically inseminated, with nearly all queens and a high percentage of subordinate foundresses being inseminated. Workers, on the other hand, are rarely, if ever, inseminated. This difference is a key factor in distinguishing reproductive individuals from sterile workers.

What happens to the social structure and worker reproduction when a queen B. petiolata is removed?

If a queen dies or is removed, the colony's social structure is disrupted. An older alpha worker may assume a dominant position. Crucially, the removal of the queen is associated with the development of mature ovaries in a portion of the worker population (around 11%), indicating a breakdown of reproductive suppression. In some cases, a beta-foundress may replace the queen.

Briefly describe the mating process for Belonogaster petiolata.

Mating begins when a male approaches a female, and they engage in antennation, touching each other's antennae. The male then mounts the female and establishes genital contact by touching his abdomen to hers. The entire copulation process is quite brief, lasting only about five seconds.

How does ovary size change in B. petiolata females during the overwintering period, and what is its significance?

During the overwintering period (April to August), the ovarian width of gynes increases significantly. This development is directly linked to their reproductive potential; females with larger ovaries are more likely to lay eggs. In contrast, workers possess thin, inactive ovaries that prevent them from laying eggs while a queen is present.

What is the typical insemination status of workers versus reproductive individuals in B. petiolata?

Workers are rarely inseminated, with none observed in certain colony stages. In contrast, queens and nearly all subordinate foundresses are inseminated. This difference is often used as a criterion to distinguish between reproductive queens and non-reproductive workers.

What are the sources of mate recognition signals in female B. petiolata, and how do they function?

Female B. petiolata possess mate recognition signals, or pheromones, located in their venom, thorax, and heads. These chemical cues attract males. The pheromones are spread across the body during grooming, enhancing the female's attractiveness to potential mates.

How does prey scarcity, particularly in late summer, affect the diet and behavior of B. petiolata?

When prey becomes scarce, often due to poor rainfall impacting insect populations, B. petiolata wasps shift their primary food source to nectar. This dietary change is a survival strategy during periods of low insect availability. A consistent lack of solid food can lead to colony decline.

How do the physical characteristics of B. petiolata wasps change as they mature?

Young, newly emerged wasps typically have black or brown eyes. As they mature, their eyes turn pink, and they develop wings, enabling flight. Workers also exhibit behavioral development, not performing dominance actions until around 17 days old.

What influences the body size and reproductive capacity of young female B. petiolata wasps?

Variations in reproductive capacity and body size among newly emerging female wasps are primarily influenced by the amount of food they received as larvae. A higher worker-to-larva ratio generally means more feeding opportunities, leading to larger and potentially more reproductively capable individuals, especially when rearing gynes.

How does the worker-to-larva ratio impact the development of young wasps, particularly gynes?

An increased worker-to-larva ratio, observed during months like November and December, indicates that more workers are available to feed the developing young. This is particularly important when rearing gynes, as these individuals require substantial nutrition to develop into the reproductive caste. The amount of food provided to larvae is a key factor in caste determination.

What are some of the online databases that list taxon identifiers for Belonogaster petiolata?

Belonogaster petiolata is cataloged in various biodiversity databases, including Wikidata (Q14423167), Encyclopedia of Life (EoL), Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), iNaturalist, Insecta.pro, the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG), the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), and the Open Tree of Life. These resources provide unique identifiers for taxonomic tracking and data aggregation.

What are some of the historical scientific names (synonyms) previously used for Belonogaster petiolata?

Historically, Belonogaster petiolata has been referred to by several synonyms, including Belonogaster brachycerus, Belonogaster linearis, Polistes linearis, and Vespa linearis. The name Belonogaster petiolatus is also listed as a synonym, likely representing a slight variation in spelling or classification.

Besides pulp, what other sources are mentioned for nest-building material for B. petiolata?

While pulp is the primary material, the text specifies that wasps obtain it from old nest cells or from larvae just before maturation. They chew the cells at the base to help the offspring emerge, and this resulting cell debris is then used for nest construction.

What is the typical size difference between colonies started by a single queen versus those started by groups of queens?

Colonies initiated by a single queen are generally smaller and considered only primitively eusocial. In contrast, colonies started by groups of queens tend to be more eusocial and house a larger number of individuals.

What happens to the queen B. petiolata after the reproductive phase concludes?

At the end of the colony season, after the reproductive phase, the female queen leaves the nest. She then overwinters and returns the following year to initiate a new colony, starting the annual cycle anew.

When do worker wasps typically begin to exhibit dominance actions?

Worker wasps do not engage in dominance actions immediately upon emerging. They typically begin to perform these behaviors when they are around 17 days old, indicating a developmental progression in their social roles.

How does the queen B. petiolata typically receive and utilize food resources compared to larvae?

Queens consistently receive a larger proportion of both liquid and solid food loads. For instance, they receive 43.7% of liquid loads and 47.8% of solid food loads. Notably, they only pass on about 63.3% of the solid food they receive to the larvae, retaining the rest for themselves.

What is the significance of the timing of male production in relation to worker insemination?

Workers may not be inseminated because they emerge during periods when males are absent from the colony. Inseminated daughters are only recorded from late February onwards, which coincides with the period when males are being produced, suggesting a temporal link between male availability and female insemination.

How does larval nutrition influence caste determination in B. petiolata?

The amount of food provided to larvae is a critical factor in determining their caste. Specifically, the worker-to-larva ratio influences growth, with higher ratios ensuring adequate feeding for developing gynes, who require substantial nutrition to develop into the reproductive caste.

Besides caves, are there other typical locations where B. petiolata nests are found?

The text primarily mentions caves as a preferred habitat for nesting, stating that nests often hang in caves or under shelter. While specific examples like the Sterkfontein Caves are given, the general description points towards sheltered environments.

What was the original binomial name for Belonogaster petiolata according to the provided synonyms?

According to the listed synonyms, the original binomial name for Belonogaster petiolata was Vespa petiolata, described by De Geer in 1778. Another related name, Polistes linearis, also points to its historical classification within different genera.

Can the queen's level of dominance activity vary throughout the colony cycle?

Yes, the queen's activity can vary. In some instances, queens initially exhibit strong dominance behaviors but become more inactive towards the end of the colony cycle. In other cases, queens maintain their dominant status throughout the entire cycle.

What food item is mentioned as being fed to B. petiolata wasps in captivity?

When B. petiolata wasps are kept in captivity, they are fed mealworms. This indicates a potential dietary flexibility or a suitable substitute for their natural insect prey.

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Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Kingdom: Animalia

Belonogaster petiolata belongs to the animal kingdom, a vast group encompassing multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and typically mobile.

Phylum: Arthropoda

As an arthropod, it possesses an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and jointed appendages, characteristic features shared with insects, spiders, and crustaceans.

Class: Insecta

Within the insect class, it exhibits the typical insect body plan: head, thorax, and abdomen, along with three pairs of legs and usually wings.

Order: Hymenoptera

This order includes ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies. Hymenoptera are known for their diverse social structures and often possess specialized stinging or egg-laying organs.

Family: Vespidae

Belonogaster petiolata is part of the Vespidae family, which comprises social wasps. This family displays a wide range of social organization, from solitary to highly eusocial species.

Subfamily: Polistinae

This subfamily includes paper wasps. They are known for constructing nests from chewed wood pulp and often exhibit complex social behaviors.

Tribe: Ropalidiini

A specific grouping within the Polistinae, characterized by certain morphological and behavioral traits.

Genus: Belonogaster

This genus contains primitively eusocial wasps. Species within Belonogaster share many characteristics, including social organization and nesting habits.

Species: B. petiolata

The specific species, Belonogaster petiolata, is closely related to species like B. juncea and B. grisea, exhibiting similar patterns in offspring production and queen development.

Description and Identification

Physical Characteristics

These wasps feature a distinct thorax and a elongated, striped gaster (abdomen) equipped with a sting. The gaster's first segment, the peduncle, connects it to the thorax. Legs are attached to the thorax.

Queen vs. Worker Morphology

A notable difference exists between queens and workers: queens possess a larger gaster and a smaller head, while workers have relatively larger heads and smaller gasters. Reproductive castes (queens, males) also have larger fat reserves for overwintering compared to workers.

Nest Construction

B. petiolata constructs paper nests from chewed pulp, often suspended in sheltered locations like caves. Wasps gather pulp from old cells or immature larvae. The nest structure includes combs, where the queen may reside or rest.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

This species is found in southern Africa, with a significant presence in South Africa. It has also been observed in areas like northern Johannesburg.

Climate Preferences

They thrive in temperate or moist subhumid climate zones. Preferred temperatures range from a January maximum of 25°C (77°F) and minimum of 14.9°C (58.8°F) to a June maximum of 15.7°C (60.3°F) and minimum of 5.3°C (41.5°F).

Preferred Environment

B. petiolata primarily resides in sheltered environments, most notably caves. The Sterkfontein Caves in South Africa host large populations. Nests are typically built hanging from cave walls.

Conservation Status

The species is abundant in southern Africa and is not considered threatened.

Colony Cycle

Nest Initiation

The annual nesting cycle begins around August. Overwintered foundress females initiate new nests in the spring. This overwintering period lasts approximately 4.5 months.

Foundress Associations

In about half of cases, additional females join the initial foundress, forming multiple-foundress colonies. Associations can include up to 16 foundresses. A dominance hierarchy forms, with one becoming the queen.

Colony Phases

The cycle includes a pre-emergence period (before first offspring), a post-emergence period (after offspring appear), a pre-matrifilial phase (subordinates present), a matrifilial phase (only queen and workers), and finally a reproductive phase (gynes and males born).

Colony Decline

Factors contributing to colony decline include a cessation of solid food supply during the reproductive phase, a decreasing worker-to-larva ratio, and adult priority for food over brood. This can lead to brood abortion and eventual abandonment of the nest.

Behavior

Dominance Hierarchy

A clear hierarchy exists. The dominant female becomes the queen, responsible for egg-laying. Workers perform most tasks: nest maintenance, foraging, and feeding larvae. Workers typically have undeveloped ovaries in the presence of a queen.

Interactions and Communication

Queens assert dominance through biting, hooking (grasping subordinates to receive regurgitated food), and soliciting (probing with antennae). Subordinates may ignore, submit, or solicit back. Dominance behaviors are usually directed downwards in the hierarchy.

Oophagy and Oviposition

Females may consume eggs, often those of subordinates (oophagy). Queens lay the majority of eggs in pre-emergence colonies. Queens also inspect eggs to identify those laid by subordinates.

Trophallaxis

Wasps engage in trophallaxis with larvae to obtain nutrient-rich salivary fluid. This involves soliciting larvae by antennating their heads and vibrating their bodies. Older larvae tend to provide more saliva.

Kin Selection and Castes

Caste System

Distinct worker and reproductive castes exist. Foundresses and gynes (reproductive females) are generally larger than workers. While workers start smaller, they grow, but reproductive castes maintain larger ovaries and fat reserves.

Winter Survival

A wasp's ability to survive winter is linked to its caste. Gynes and foundresses possess greater fat reserves, enabling them to endure colder periods, unlike most workers.

Queen Removal

If a queen dies, a dominant alpha worker or a beta-foundress may assume leadership. Queen loss can trigger ovary development in some workers, though this is less common than continued dominance by a replacement foundress.

Reproduction

Copulation

Mating involves mutual antennation, followed by the male mounting the female. Genital contact is established briefly, with copulation lasting only about five seconds.

Ovary Development

Ovarian width increases significantly in gynes during the overwintering period and leading up to spring. While workers have immature ovaries, they can develop if the queen is absent. Inseminated females are more likely to lay eggs.

Insemination Status

Workers are rarely inseminated. Foundresses and gynes, particularly those overwintering, show high rates of insemination. This is often a criterion for distinguishing reproductive females from workers.

Mate Recognition

Female wasps possess mate recognition signals, likely pheromones, within their venom, thorax, and head. These signals, spread through grooming, attract males.

Diet

Primary Food Sources

B. petiolata consumes both solid food, primarily small insects like caterpillars, and liquid nectar. They masticate solid food to feed themselves, others, and the young brood.

Water Requirement

Water is essential for survival, alongside nectar and solid food.

Food Allocation

Queens receive a disproportionately larger share of both liquid and solid food loads. They also retain a significant portion of the solid food for themselves rather than passing it all to larvae.

Seasonal Changes and Prey Availability

In late summer, reduced prey abundance, often due to poor rainfall, leads wasps to rely more heavily on nectar. A consistent supply of solid food is crucial for colony health.

Growth and Development

Early Development

Newly emerged wasps have black or brown eyes. As they mature, their eyes turn pink, and they develop wings. Young workers often huddle together for protection from aggression.

Body Size and Caste

Body size increases from January to March, particularly for workers born later in the season. The amount of food provided during larval stages influences caste determination and final body size.

Worker-to-Larva Ratio

A higher worker-to-larva ratio, observed in November and December, ensures sufficient feeding for developing gynes (the highest caste), indicating that adequate nutrition is key to caste differentiation.

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References

Genus Belonogaster de Saussure. Catalog of Species in the Polistine Tribe Ropalidiini (Hymenoptera: Vespidae).

Keeping, Malcolm G. "Social Behavior and Brood Decline in Reproductive-phase Colonies Of Belonogaster Petiolata (Degeer) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)." Journal of Insect Behavior 10.2 (1997): 265-78. Web. 20 Sept. 2014.

Keeping, Malcolm G. "Social Organization and Division of Labour in Colonies of the Polistine Wasp, Belonogaster Petiolata." Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 31.3 (1992): n. pag. Web. 20 Sept. 2014.

"Animal Diversity Web." ADW: Belonogaster Petiolata: CLASSIFICATION. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2014.

Keeping, Malcolm G. "Absence of Chemical Alarm in a Primitively Eusocial Wasp (Belonogaster Petiolata, Hymenoptera: Vespidae)." Insectes Sociaux 42.3 (1995): 317–20. Web. 20 Sept. 2014.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Belonogaster petiolata Wikipedia page

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The Intricate World of Belonogaster petiolata

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🔬 Taxonomy and Phylogeny

👑 Kingdom: Animalia

🔗 Phylum: Arthropoda

🦋 Class: Insecta

🖐️ Order: Hymenoptera

🏡 Family: Vespidae

🌳 Subfamily: Polistinae

🌿 Tribe: Ropalidiini

🐝 Genus: Belonogaster

⭐ Species: B. petiolata

📏 Description and Identification

🎨 Physical Characteristics

👑 vs 👷 Queen vs. Worker Morphology

🏠 Nest Construction

🌍 Distribution and Habitat

📍 Geographic Range

🌡️ Climate Preferences

🏞️ Preferred Environment

📈 Conservation Status

🔄 Colony Cycle

🌱 Nest Initiation

🤝 Foundress Associations

⏳ Colony Phases

📉 Colony Decline

💬 Behavior

⚖️ Dominance Hierarchy

🗣️ Interactions and Communication

🥚 Oophagy and Oviposition

💧 Trophallaxis

🧬 Kin Selection and Castes

📊 Caste System

❄️ Winter Survival

👑 Replacement Queen Removal

💖 Reproduction

💞 Copulation

📈 Ovary Development

🔬 Insemination Status

🌸 Mate Recognition

🍽️ Diet

🐛 Primary Food Sources

💧 Water Requirement

👑 vs 👷 Food Allocation

☀️ Seasonal Changes and Prey Availability

👶 Growth and Development

👀 Early Development

⬆️ Body Size and Caste

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Worker-to-Larva Ratio

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Hymenoptera

Family: Vespidae

Subfamily: Polistinae

Tribe: Ropalidiini

Genus: Belonogaster

Species: B. petiolata

Description and Identification

Physical Characteristics

Queen vs. Worker Morphology

Nest Construction

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Climate Preferences

Preferred Environment

Conservation Status

Colony Cycle

Nest Initiation

Foundress Associations

Colony Phases

Colony Decline

Behavior

Dominance Hierarchy

Interactions and Communication

Oophagy and Oviposition

Trophallaxis

Kin Selection and Castes

Caste System

Winter Survival

Queen Removal

Reproduction

Copulation

Ovary Development

Insemination Status

Mate Recognition

Diet

Primary Food Sources

Water Requirement

Food Allocation

Seasonal Changes and Prey Availability

Growth and Development

Early Development

Body Size and Caste

Worker-to-Larva Ratio

Teacher's Corner

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References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice