Who was Boutros Boutros-Ghali and what were his primary roles in international affairs?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was an Egyptian politician and diplomat who served as the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1992 to 1996. Prior to this, he was Egypt's acting Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1977 to 1979. After his tenure at the UN, he became the first Secretary-General of La Francophonie from 1997 to 2002.

When and where was Boutros Boutros-Ghali born, and what was his family background?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was born in Cairo, Egypt, on November 14, 1922. He came from a Coptic Christian family, and his grandfather, also named Boutros Ghali, had served as the Prime Minister of Egypt from 1908 until his assassination in 1910.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's academic background and early career?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was an academic by training. He graduated from Cairo University in 1946 and earned a PhD in international law from the University of Paris in 1949, also receiving a diploma in international relations from Sciences Po. He then taught international law and international relations at Cairo University from 1949 to 1979.

What significant peace agreements did Boutros Boutros-Ghali contribute to as Egypt's acting Minister of Foreign Affairs?

As Egypt's acting Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Boutros Boutros-Ghali played a role in negotiating the Camp David Accords and the subsequent Egypt-Israel peace treaty between Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin.

What major world crises occurred during Boutros Boutros-Ghali's tenure as UN Secretary-General?

During his term from 1992 to 1996, Boutros Boutros-Ghali oversaw the United Nations during a period marked by several significant world crises, including the breakup of Yugoslavia, the Rwandan genocide, the Somali Civil War, and the Angolan Civil War.

What was 'An Agenda for Peace' and what were its main objectives?

'An Agenda for Peace' was a proposal submitted by Boutros Boutros-Ghali in 1992 outlining how the UN could respond more effectively to violent conflict. Its primary goals were to make the UN more active in promoting democracy, to utilize preventative diplomacy to avert crises, and to expand the UN's role in peacekeeping operations.

Despite aligning with US President George H.W. Bush's goals, why did Boutros Boutros-Ghali repeatedly clash with the United States?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali clashed with the United States primarily due to his efforts to secure US support for deeper UN involvement in civil wars, specifically in Somalia and Rwanda. The US refused to commit its peace enforcement units under UN command in these situations.

What criticism did Boutros Boutros-Ghali face regarding the UN's actions in Bosnia and Herzegovina?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali faced criticism for the perceived ineffectiveness of the UN peacekeeping operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This situation ultimately led to a NATO intervention in December 1995.

What role did Boutros Boutros-Ghali play in the Rwandan genocide?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was criticized for the UN's failure to intervene effectively during the 1994 Rwandan genocide, which resulted in the deaths of over half a million people. He was the UN Secretary-General when these events occurred.

What was the outcome of Boutros Boutros-Ghali's bid for a second term as UN Secretary-General?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali ran unopposed for a second term in 1996. However, the United States, dissatisfied with his leadership, used its Security Council veto to block his re-election, despite him securing 14 out of 15 votes in the Council. He eventually suspended his candidacy.

Who succeeded Boutros Boutros-Ghali as Secretary-General of the United Nations?

Kofi Annan, from Ghana, succeeded Boutros Boutros-Ghali as the Secretary-General of the United Nations, beginning his term after Boutros-Ghali's term ended on December 31, 1996.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's role after leaving the United Nations?

After his tenure at the UN, Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as the first Secretary-General of La Francophonie from 1997 to 2002. He also became the chairman of the board of the South Centre, an intergovernmental think tank for developing countries, and played a role in establishing Egypt's National Council for Human Rights.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's stance on global democratic participation?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali supported the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly. In a message to the campaign, he emphasized the necessity of establishing democratic participation for citizens at the global level.

When and at what age did Boutros Boutros-Ghali pass away?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali died on February 16, 2016, in Cairo, Egypt, at the age of 93. His death followed admission to a hospital for a broken pelvis or leg.

What was the nature of Boutros Boutros-Ghali's marriage?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was married to Leia Maria Nadler. She was raised in an Egyptian Jewish family in Alexandria and converted to Catholicism as a young woman.

What academic positions did Boutros Boutros-Ghali hold?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali held several academic positions, including Professor of International Law and International Relations at Cairo University from 1949 to 1979. He was also a Fulbright Research Scholar at Columbia University and a Visiting Professor at the Faculty of Law of Paris.

What was the significance of the 1991 UN Secretary-General selection process for Boutros Boutros-Ghali?

In the 1991 selection for UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, representing Africa, was a leading candidate. After a close contest with Bernard Chidzero of Zimbabwe, he ultimately won the position in the fifth round of polling.

What specific criticism did Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad direct at Boutros Boutros-Ghali?

Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad called for Boutros Boutros-Ghali to resign due to his perceived failure to take decisive action to resolve the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina.

How did Boutros Boutros-Ghali's reputation become entangled with broader UN controversies?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali's reputation became linked to larger controversies concerning the UN's effectiveness and the role of the United States within the organization, particularly due to UN actions (or inactions) during crises like the Rwandan genocide and the Yugoslav Wars.

What specific accusation was made by investigative journalist Linda Melvern regarding Boutros Boutros-Ghali's actions as foreign minister?

Investigative journalist Linda Melvern accused Boutros Boutros-Ghali of approving a secret $26 million arms sale to the Rwandan government in 1990, when he was foreign minister. These weapons were allegedly stockpiled by the Hutu regime in preparation for the subsequent genocide.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's role in the South Centre after his UN tenure?

After his term as UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as the chairman of the board of the South Centre, which is described as an intergovernmental research organization for developing countries.

What specific event did Mark Bowden attribute to Boutros Boutros-Ghali's personal vendetta?

Mark Bowden argued that Boutros Boutros-Ghali was responsible for escalating the Somalia crisis through a personal vendetta against Mohamed Farrah Aidid and his clan. Bowden suggested that Boutros-Ghali's actions, including allegedly demanding the US helicopter attack on a meeting of clan leaders, contributed to the Battle of Mogadishu.

What honor did Boutros Boutros-Ghali receive from Uppsala University?

In 1986, Boutros Boutros-Ghali received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Law at Uppsala University in Sweden.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's contribution to the development of Egypt's human rights framework?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali played a significant role in the creation of Egypt's National Council for Human Rights and served as its president until 2012.

What was the nature of the US objection to Boutros Boutros-Ghali's second term as UN Secretary-General?

The United States, led by Ambassador Madeleine Albright, deemed Boutros Boutros-Ghali 'disengaged' and 'neglectful' regarding the genocide in Rwanda. They demanded his resignation and ultimately used their Security Council veto to prevent him from securing a second term.

Which other Secretary-General was denied re-election by a veto, similar to Boutros Boutros-Ghali?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was the second Secretary-General to be denied re-election by a veto. The first was Kurt Waldheim.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's role in the Fondation Chirac's Conflict Prevention Prize?

From 2009 to 2015, Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as a jury member for the Conflict Prevention Prize, an award given annually by the Fondation Chirac.

What type of funeral was held for Boutros Boutros-Ghali, and who led the prayers?

A military funeral was held for Boutros Boutros-Ghali. Prayers were led by Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria, and he was buried at the Petrine Church in Abbassia, Cairo.

What were some of the notable works published by Boutros Boutros-Ghali in English?

In English, Boutros Boutros-Ghali published works such as 'The Arab League, 1945-1955', 'New Dimensions of Arms Regulations and Disarmament in the Post Cold War', 'An Agenda for Development', 'Confronting New Challenges', 'Fifty Years of the United Nations', and his memoir 'Unvanquished: A US-UN Saga'.

What were some of the notable works published by Boutros Boutros-Ghali in French?

In French, Boutros Boutros-Ghali authored works including 'Contribution à l'étude des ententes régionales', 'Cours de Diplomatie et de Droit Diplomatique et consulaire', 'Le problème du canal de Suez', 'Le principe d'égalité des États et des organisations internationales', 'Le Mouvement afro-asiatique', and 'L'organisation de l'Unité africaine'.

What specific honor did Boutros Boutros-Ghali receive from Canada?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was made a Companion of the Order of Canada in 2003.

What national honors did Boutros Boutros-Ghali receive from Egypt?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali received several national honors from Egypt, including the Grand Collar of the Order of the Nile in 1991, the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Arab Republic of Egypt in 1989, and the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit in 1977.

Which foreign honors did Boutros Boutros-Ghali receive, and from which countries?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali received numerous foreign honors, including the Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín (Argentina), the Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (Belgium), the Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil), the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France), the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, and the Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry (Portugal), among others.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's role in the Arab League's early years?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali authored 'The Arab League, 1945-1955: Ten Years of Struggle', indicating his early engagement with the organization's development and challenges.

What was the nature of the relationship between Boutros Boutros-Ghali and Mohamed Farrah Aidid, according to Mark Bowden?

According to Mark Bowden, Boutros Boutros-Ghali pursued a personal vendetta against Mohamed Farrah Aidid and his clan, favoring Aidid's rivals. Bowden suggested this personal animosity influenced decisions made during the UN's involvement in Somalia.

What is the significance of the 'Aleksandrinke' in Boutros Boutros-Ghali's early life?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was raised by a Slovenian nanny, referred to as an 'Aleksandrinke'. He reportedly felt closer to this nanny, named Milena, than to his own mother.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's involvement with the South Centre?

From 2002 to 2005, Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as the chairman of the board of the South Centre, an intergovernmental research organization that supports developing countries.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's stance on the concept of 'preventative diplomacy'?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali advocated for preventative diplomacy as a key goal for the UN, aiming to avert crises before they escalate into violent conflicts.

What role did Boutros Boutros-Ghali play in the context of the UN's peacekeeping operations?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali sought to expand the UN's role as a peacekeeper and proposed new strategies in 'An Agenda for Peace'. However, his tenure was marked by challenges and criticisms regarding the effectiveness of UN peacekeeping in conflicts like those in Bosnia and Rwanda.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's perspective on the role of democracy in international relations?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali believed the UN should be more active in promoting democracy globally. He also supported the idea of establishing democratic participation at the global level through initiatives like a UN Parliamentary Assembly.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's relationship with the United States during his UN tenure?

Despite initial alignment on some goals, Boutros Boutros-Ghali repeatedly clashed with the United States, particularly over UN involvement in Somalia and Rwanda. The US ultimately vetoed his bid for a second term as Secretary-General.

What specific award did Boutros Boutros-Ghali receive from the Afro-American Institute in New York?

In November 1993, Boutros Boutros-Ghali received the Arthur A. Houghton Jr. Star Crystal Award for Excellence from the Afro-American Institute in New York.

What was the purpose of the 'An Agenda for Development' publication by Boutros Boutros-Ghali?

'An Agenda for Development' was a publication by Boutros Boutros-Ghali, released by the United Nations in 1995, likely outlining strategies and proposals related to global development.

What is the significance of Boutros Boutros-Ghali's membership in the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali's membership in the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques indicates recognition for his contributions to political science, ethics, and social sciences, likely due to his extensive diplomatic and academic career.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's connection to the UN French Language Day?

While not explicitly stated as a direct role in its creation, Boutros Boutros-Ghali's position as Secretary-General of La Francophonie and his extensive work in French-speaking international forums suggest a strong connection to the promotion of the French language, which UN French Language Day celebrates.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's role in the establishment of Egypt's National Council for Human Rights?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali played a significant role in creating Egypt's National Council for Human Rights and served as its president until 2012.

What does the citation regarding 'A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda's Genocide' imply about Boutros Boutros-Ghali's actions?

The citation suggests that Linda Melvern's book 'A People Betrayed' discusses Boutros Boutros-Ghali's role, particularly concerning the arms sale to Rwanda and the UN's response to the genocide, implying a critical examination of his actions during that period.

What was the context of Boutros Boutros-Ghali's participation in the World Economic Forum in 1995?

In 1995, Boutros Boutros-Ghali attended the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting in Davos, where he met with Klaus Schwab and Flavio Cotti, likely discussing global issues and the role of international organizations.

What was Boutros Boutros-Ghali's relationship with his wife, Leia Maria Nadler?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was married to Leia Maria Nadler, who came from an Egyptian Jewish background and converted to Catholicism. She remained his wife until his death in 2016.

What was the primary focus of Boutros Boutros-Ghali's academic work?

Boutros Boutros-Ghali's academic work primarily focused on international law and international relations, as evidenced by his PhD in international law and his professorship in these fields.

What was the outcome of the 1996 UN Security Council vote regarding Boutros Boutros-Ghali's second term?

In the 1996 informal vote, Boutros Boutros-Ghali received 14 out of 15 votes in the Security Council for a second term. However, the United States cast the sole veto, preventing his re-election.

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Early Life and Education

Cairo Origins

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was born in Cairo, Egypt, on November 14, 1922, into a prominent Coptic Christian family. His grandfather, Boutros Ghali Pasha, had served as Prime Minister of Egypt, establishing a legacy of public service.

Academic Foundation

He pursued higher education diligently, earning a law degree from Cairo University in 1946. His academic journey continued internationally, culminating in a PhD in international law from the University of Paris and a diploma in international relations from Sciences Po in 1949.

Scholarly Career

From 1949 to 1979, Boutros-Ghali was a respected academic, holding the position of Professor of International Law and International Relations at Cairo University. His scholarly pursuits also included roles at Columbia University and The Hague Academy of International Law, broadening his expertise in global affairs.

Political and Diplomatic Career

Entry into Politics

Boutros-Ghali's political career began under President Anwar Sadat. He served as Egypt's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 1977 to early 1991. During this period, he was instrumental in negotiating the landmark Camp David Accords and the subsequent Egypt-Israel peace treaty.

International Law Advocate

His background in international law heavily influenced his diplomatic approach. He held leadership positions in various international organizations, including the presidency of the Centre of Political and Strategic Studies and the African Society of Political Studies, demonstrating his commitment to regional and global cooperation.

Controversial Arms Deal

An investigative report by Linda Melvern suggests that Boutros-Ghali approved a significant arms sale to the Rwandan government in 1990. This action has drawn scrutiny given the subsequent Rwandan genocide in 1994, during which he served as UN Secretary-General.

United Nations Secretary-General

Election in 1991

Boutros-Ghali was elected the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1991, succeeding Javier Pérez de Cuéllar. His election followed a competitive process where he emerged victorious after several rounds of polling.

Agenda for Peace

In 1992, he submitted "An Agenda for Peace," outlining a vision for a more proactive UN in conflict resolution. His goals included promoting democracy, engaging in preventative diplomacy, and expanding the UN's peacekeeping role.

Navigating Crises

His tenure (1992-1996) coincided with significant global challenges, including the breakup of Yugoslavia, the Rwandan genocide, and conflicts in Somalia and Angola. His leadership during these crises was marked by controversy and criticism, particularly regarding UN inaction and effectiveness.

US Veto and Second Term

Despite running unopposed for a second term in 1996, the United States exercised its Security Council veto, preventing his re-election. This decision stemmed from disagreements over his leadership and the UN's handling of various international crises.

Post-UN Career

La Francophonie Leadership

Following his UN term, Boutros-Ghali served as the first Secretary-General of La Francophonie, an international organization representing French-speaking nations, from 1997 to 2002.

South Centre and Human Rights

He later chaired the board of the South Centre, a think tank for developing countries, from 2002 to 2005. He also played a key role in establishing Egypt's National Council for Human Rights, serving as its president until 2012.

Global Governance Advocate

Boutros-Ghali actively supported the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, emphasizing the need for greater global democratic participation. He also served as a jury member for the Fondation Chirac's Conflict Prevention Prize.

Passing

Final Years

Boutros Boutros-Ghali passed away on February 16, 2016, at the age of 93 in a Cairo hospital. He had been admitted following a leg injury.

Memorial

A state funeral was held in his honor, with prayers led by Pope Tawadros II. He was laid to rest at the Petrine Church in Abbassia, Cairo.

Personal Life

Family

Boutros-Ghali was married to Leia Maria Nadler. She came from an Egyptian Jewish family in Alexandria and later converted to Catholicism.

Honors and Recognition

Academic and National Honors

Throughout his distinguished career, Boutros-Ghali received numerous honorary doctorates from universities worldwide and was recognized with various national honors, including the Grand Collar of the Order of the Nile from Egypt.

Grand Collar of the Order of the Nile (Egypt, 1991)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Arab Republic of Egypt (1989)
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Egypt, 1977)

International Accolades

His contributions to international relations were acknowledged globally through numerous foreign honors from countries across continents, reflecting his extensive diplomatic engagement.

Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín (Argentina)
Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (Belgium)
Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil)
Companion of the Order of Canada (2003)
Grand Cross of the Order of Central African Recognition
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Chile)
Grand Cross of the Order of Boyacá (Colombia)
Knight of the Order of the Elephant (Denmark)
Grand Cross of the National Order of San Lorenzo (Ecuador)
Grand Cross with Silver Star of the Order of José Matías Delgado (El Salvador)
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France, 1994)
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer (Greece)
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (1982)
Grand Cross of the Order of Ivory Merit (Ivory Coast)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (Japan)
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
Grand Cross of the National Order of Mali
Grand Cross of the Order of the Aztec Eagle (Mexico)
Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of Nepal
Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav (Norway, 1994)
Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun of Peru
Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry (Portugal, 1996)
Order of La Pléiade (Quebec, 2002)
Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania (2001)
National Order of the Lion (Senegal)
Grand Order of Mugunghwa (South Korea)
Grand Cross of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star (Sweden)
Order of Pope Pius IX (Holy See, 1993)

Published Works

Scholarly Contributions

Boutros-Ghali authored numerous books and articles, primarily focusing on international law, diplomacy, and Arab-Israeli relations. His writings reflect his deep engagement with global political and legal issues.

The Arab League, 1945–1955 (1954)
New Dimensions of Arms Regulations and Disarmament in the Post Cold War (1992)
An Agenda for Development (1995)
An Agenda for Democratization (1997)
Egypt's Road to Jerusalem (1998)
Unvanquished: A US-UN Saga (1999)
The Arab League, 1945–1955: International Conciliation (2013)

French Publications

His extensive work also includes significant contributions in French, covering themes of alliances, African unity, and the challenges of globalization.

Contribution à l'étude des ententes régionales (1949)
Cours de Diplomatie et de Droit Diplomatique et consulaire (1951)
Le Mouvement afro-asiatique (1969)
L'organisation de l'Unité africaine (1969)
Les conflits des frontières en Afrique (1972)
Démocratiser la mondialisation (2002)
Émanciper la Francophonie (2003)

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References

Bowden 1999, pp. 83â84.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Boutros Boutros-Ghali Wikipedia page

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Early Life and Education 🎓

🌍 Cairo Origins

📚 Academic Foundation

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Political and Diplomatic Career 🤝

💼 Entry into Politics

⚖️ International Law Advocate

⚠️ Controversial Arms Deal

United Nations Secretary-General 🇺🇳

🗳️ Election in 1991

📜 Agenda for Peace

🌐 Navigating Crises

💥 US Veto and Second Term

Post-UN Career ➡️

🗣️ La Francophonie Leadership

💡 South Centre and Human Rights

📢 Global Governance Advocate

Passing 🕊️

📅 Final Years

⚰️ Memorial

Personal Life 👤

💍 Family

Honors and Recognition 🏆

🏅 Academic and National Honors

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Published Works 📚

📖 Scholarly Contributions

🇫🇷 French Publications

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Early Life and Education

Cairo Origins

Academic Foundation

Scholarly Career

Political and Diplomatic Career

Entry into Politics

International Law Advocate

Controversial Arms Deal

United Nations Secretary-General

Election in 1991

Agenda for Peace

Navigating Crises

US Veto and Second Term

Post-UN Career

La Francophonie Leadership

South Centre and Human Rights

Global Governance Advocate

Passing

Final Years

Memorial

Personal Life

Family

Honors and Recognition

Academic and National Honors

International Accolades

Published Works

Scholarly Contributions

French Publications

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice