What is meant by 'Buddhism in the West'?

Buddhism in the West broadly refers to the knowledge and practice of Buddhism outside of its traditional Asian homelands, within the Western world. This encompasses the spread of Buddhist teachings, the establishment of communities, and the adaptation of practices to Western cultural contexts.

When did the first recorded intersections between Western civilization and Buddhist culture occur?

The earliest documented intersections occurred thousands of years ago, with Greek colonies in India as early as the 6th century BCE. During the Hellenistic period, Westerners, particularly Greeks who settled in Bactria and India, became Buddhists and were influential figures in the emergence of Greco-Buddhism and Greco-Buddhist art.

How did increased global trade and European colonization impact the knowledge of Buddhism in the West during the early modern period?

The rise of global trade, advancements in navigation, and European colonization of Asian Buddhist countries led to increased contact between Westerners and Buddhist cultures. This facilitated greater knowledge of Buddhism among Westerners, prompting various responses from both Buddhists and Westerners, including religious debates and the study of Buddhism.

What were some of the key responses to increased contact between Buddhism and the West in the modern era?

Increased contact led to several significant developments, including religious proselytism, polemical debates (such as the Panadura debate in Sri Lanka), the rise of Buddhist modernism, the conversion of Westerners to Buddhism, and the establishment of Buddhist studies in Western academia.

What factors contributed to the growth of Western Buddhism in the 20th century?

The growth of Buddhism in the West during the 20th century was influenced by several factors, including immigration from Asian Buddhist countries, globalization, a decline in the dominance of Christianity in Western societies, and a growing interest in Buddhism among Westerners.

What is Greco-Buddhism, and where did it primarily develop?

Greco-Buddhism was a cultural synthesis that emerged from the interaction between Greek and Buddhist cultures in the Hellenistic period. It primarily developed in the Gandharan civilization, which spanned parts of modern-day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan, influencing art and religious practices.

What evidence suggests early Greek involvement with Buddhism?

Evidence includes the influence of Greek sculptors on Buddhist art in Gandhara, the use of Buddhist symbolism on coins of Indo-Greek kings like Menander I, and Menander I's portrayal as a convert in the Buddhist scripture 'Milinda Panha'. Additionally, a Greek monk named Mahadharmaraksita is mentioned as leading 30,000 monks from Alexandria to Sri Lanka.

How did Pyrrhonism, a Western philosophy, show similarities to Buddhist teachings?

Pyrrhonism, founded by Pyrrho who encountered Buddhism in India, promoted the suspension of judgment (epoché) about non-evident matters to achieve ataraxia, a state comparable to Buddhist nirvana. This philosophical approach mirrored Buddhist practices of refraining from metaphysical speculation and relinquishing fixed views.

What documented interactions occurred between Buddhism and the Roman world?

Interactions included an embassy sent by an Indian king to Emperor Augustus around 13 CE, which included a religious man (sramana) named Zarmanochegas who demonstrated his faith by self-immolation in Athens. Classical writers like Nicolaus of Damascus, Strabo, and Dio Cassius documented these events, indicating that Indian religious figures visited Mediterranean countries.

How did early Christian writers perceive or mention Buddhism?

Early Christian writers like Clement of Alexandria mentioned Buddha, honoring him for his sanctity. Later writers like Hippolytus and Epiphanius discussed figures like Scythianus and Terebinthus, whose teachings were linked to Buddhist doctrines. The legend of Barlaam and Josaphat is also known to draw from the life of the Buddha.

What was the general perception of Buddhism among Western intellectuals in the 19th century?

Initially, many Western accounts portrayed Buddhism negatively, describing it as a nihilistic, pessimistic, idolatrous, and heathen faith. However, works like Sir Edwin Arnold's poem 'The Light of Asia' offered a more sympathetic view, influencing intellectuals who saw Buddhism as a rational alternative to Christianity.

How did Theosophy and Spiritualism contribute to the interest in Buddhism in the West?

The rise of movements like Spiritualism and Theosophy, particularly figures like Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, helped popularize Buddhism. Olcott, in particular, became influential in the Sinhalese Buddhist revival and promoted a modernist interpretation of Buddhism.

What was the significance of Henry Steel Olcott's 'Buddhist Catechism'?

Olcott's 'Buddhist Catechism,' published in 1881, was an influential introduction to Buddhism that presented it as compatible with modern science and rationalism. It argued that Buddhism was based on causality and encouraged critical inquiry, becoming widely popular and remaining in use.

Which Western philosophers showed interest in Buddhism during the 19th century?

Influential philosophers like Arthur Schopenhauer praised the wisdom of Indian religions, including Buddhism, finding parallels between his philosophy of Will and Buddhist concepts. Friedrich Nietzsche also commented on Buddhism, viewing it as more realistic and 'Beyond Good and Evil' than Christianity, though he also saw it as potentially nihilistic.

What role did the 1893 World Parliament of Religions in Chicago play in the dissemination of Buddhism?

The Parliament provided a significant platform for Buddhist representatives from Japan (like Soyen Shaku) and Sri Lanka (Anagarika Dharmapala) to introduce Buddhism to a Western audience. Dharmapala's passionate speech particularly resonated, leading to further engagement and interest.

How did D. T. Suzuki contribute to the popularization of Zen Buddhism in the West?

D. T. Suzuki, after coming to the United States in 1897, became the most important figure in popularizing Zen Buddhism in the West through his writings. His work blended Asian Buddhism with Western philosophical and esoteric traditions, influencing many intellectuals and artists.

What are the key characteristics of 'Buddhist modernism'?

Buddhist modernism, promoted by figures like Olcott and Paul Carus, emphasizes the compatibility of Buddhism with modern science and rationalism. It often involves demythologization, reinterpretation of teachings as scientific or philosophical, and a focus on reason and individual experience over blind faith.

What were some of the early European institutions established for Buddhism?

Early European Buddhist institutions included the Buddhist Society in London (founded 1924), the Buddhist Parish for Germany in Munich (1921), and Das Buddhistische Haus in Berlin (1924). The Datsan Gunzechoinei in St. Petersburg, founded by Buryat and Kalmyk Buddhists, was the first Buddhist monastery in Europe.

How did the Japanese American Buddhist community, particularly the Buddhist Churches of America (BCA), function?

The BCA, established by Japanese immigrants, served as a way to preserve Japanese culture and language while practicing their religion. During World War II, this community faced anti-Japanese sentiment and internment, which accelerated their Anglicization and created generational divides.

What was the impact of the 'Zen boom' in the post-World War II era?

The 'Zen boom' saw many Westerners, disillusioned with materialism and traditional Christianity, turn to Eastern religions like Buddhism, particularly Zen. Influential literary figures like Jack Kerouac and Gary Snyder, along with thinkers like Alan Watts, played a role in this trend.

What were some of the key developments in Theravada Buddhism in the West after WWII?

After WWII, Theravada Buddhism saw growth through the establishment of monastic communities like the Washington Buddhist Vihara and the rise of the Vipassana (Insight Meditation) movement. Figures like Sharon Salzberg, Jack Kornfield, and Joseph Goldstein founded influential meditation centers, emphasizing lay practice and meditation.

How did Tibetan Buddhism gain prominence in the West, especially from the 1970s onwards?

Tibetan Buddhism's prominence grew significantly due to the Tibetan diaspora following the Chinese occupation of Tibet. The charismatic figure of the Dalai Lama, coupled with media attention and Hollywood films, fostered widespread interest and sympathy for Tibetan Buddhism and its cause.

Who were some influential figures in bringing Tibetan Buddhism to the West?

Key figures include Chögyam Trungpa, who established institutions like Naropa Institute and Shambala Training; Lama Ole Nydahl, who founded numerous Diamond Way centers; and the Dalai Lama himself, who became a globally recognized spiritual leader. Many other Tibetan lamas also established teaching centers across the West.

What is the significance of the Kagyu Samye Ling center in Scotland?

Kagyu Samye Ling, founded in 1967, was the first Tibetan Buddhist center established in the West. It was named after the first monastery in Tibet and received assurance from the 16th Karmapa regarding the future of Buddhism in the West.

How did Western converts adapt Buddhist practices, as seen in the Sanbo Kyodan lineage?

The Sanbo Kyodan lineage, influenced by Hakuun Yasutani, focused on adapting Zen for lay practitioners. Reforms included intensive lay meditation retreats and a reduction in ceremonial practices, making teachings more accessible to non-monastics.

What are some of the major Zen institutions established in the West?

Prominent Soto Zen institutions include the San Francisco Zen Center and the Tassajara Zen Mountain Center, associated with Shunryu Suzuki. Rinzai Zen organizations include Dai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-ji and the Mt. Baldy Zen Center in the USA. The Kwan Um School of Zen represents Korean Seon.

What characterized the spread of Theravada Buddhism through the Vipassana movement?

The Vipassana or Insight Meditation movement, led by lay teachers like Jack Kornfield and Joseph Goldstein, emphasizes meditation practice in lay life with minimal ritual. This approach is often presented as a secular technique, influenced by Western humanism and psychology.

What are some of the major Buddhist temples or monasteries established in the Western Hemisphere?

Notable examples include the Nan Tien Temple in Wollongong, Australia, and the Hsi Lai Temple in Hacienda Heights, California, both operated by Fo Guang Shan. The City of 10,000 Buddhas near Ukiah, California, is another significant institution.

How has Buddhism been integrated into popular culture in the West?

Buddhist imagery and concepts have been increasingly appropriated by modern pop culture and commercial advertising. Hollywood films depicting Buddhist themes have also achieved commercial success, contributing to broader public awareness.

What are some of the common reasons cited for the growth of Buddhism in the West?

Key reasons include globalization, immigration, increased literacy and access to Buddhist texts through reading, and the declining cultural hegemony of Christianity in Western societies. Buddhism is often seen as offering a methodical path to happiness and a response to perceived spiritual emptiness.

What distinction is often made between 'ethnic Buddhism' and 'convert Buddhism' in the West?

Ethnic Buddhism typically refers to practices brought by Asian immigrants, often maintaining traditional forms and languages. Convert Buddhism, practiced by Westerners, is frequently associated with traditions like Zen, Pure Land, Vipassana, or Tibetan Buddhism, and is often adapted to Western contexts.

What is the role of meditation in contemporary Western Buddhist groups?

The regular practice of meditation is a common and central feature in most modern Western Buddhist groups, particularly among convert Buddhists. Many groups focus on meditation retreats and mindfulness as core practices.

What issues have arisen concerning charismatic authority and scandals within some Western Buddhist organizations?

Several groups have faced sex scandals, often linked to the transition from charismatic leadership to more institutionalized structures. These issues highlight the challenges of balancing spiritual authority with accountability and ethical conduct.

How did early Western philosophers like Schopenhauer and Nietzsche engage with Buddhist ideas?

Arthur Schopenhauer found parallels between his philosophy of suffering and the Will and Buddhist teachings, praising Buddhism as a high ideal. Friedrich Nietzsche admired Buddhism's realism and atheistic stance but also viewed it as potentially nihilistic, even considering himself an 'antipode' to the Buddha.

What is the significance of the 'Zen boom'?

The 'Zen boom' refers to the surge in interest in Zen Buddhism during the mid-20th century, particularly among the Beat generation and counterculture movements. Influential figures like D. T. Suzuki, Jack Kerouac, and Alan Watts played key roles in popularizing Zen in the West.

How did the Buddhist modernism movement attempt to reconcile Buddhism with Western thought?

Buddhist modernism sought to demonstrate Buddhism's compatibility with modern science, rationalism, and Enlightenment values. Figures like Henry Steel Olcott and Paul Carus presented Buddhism as a 'religion of science' or reason, accessible through critical inquiry.

What is the general demographic profile of Western Buddhism, particularly among converts?

Convert Buddhism in the West tends to appeal more to white individuals, the middle and upper-middle classes, those with left-leaning political views, and people living in urban areas.

What role have Tibetan lamas played in establishing Buddhism in the West?

Following the Chinese occupation of Tibet, numerous Tibetan lamas emigrated to the West, establishing teaching centers and introducing various schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Figures like the Dalai Lama, Chögyam Trungpa, and Lama Ole Nydahl have been particularly influential.

What are some of the major Buddhist publications catering to Western audiences?

Prominent publications include 'Lion's Roar' (formerly 'Shambhala Sun') and 'Tricycle: The Buddhist Review,' which provide articles, teachings, and news relevant to Western Buddhist practitioners.

How did early academic studies of Buddhism develop in Europe?

In the late 18th century, the development of Sanskrit and Oriental studies in European universities led to the availability of Buddhist texts. Scholars like Eugène Burnouf and Christian Lassen made significant contributions through translations and grammatical studies of Buddhist languages.

What was the impact of the Pali Text Society and figures like Max Müller on Western Buddhist studies?

The Pali Text Society, founded in 1881 by Thomas William Rhys Davids, facilitated the translation and publication of the Pali Canon. Max Müller's work on Buddhist texts, published in the 'Sacred Books of the East' series, also played a crucial role in making Buddhist scriptures accessible to Western scholars.

What is the significance of the 'Western tulku' concept?

The concept of a 'Western tulku' refers to individuals recognized as reincarnate lamas within Tibetan Buddhism who are born in the West. This development signifies the increasing integration and adaptation of Tibetan Buddhist traditions within Western societies.

How did the Buddhist Churches of America (BCA) adapt to the American context?

The BCA, founded by Japanese immigrants, underwent Anglicization, particularly accelerated by the internment of Japanese Americans during WWII. This led to increased use of English and a generational gap between immigrant and American-born members.

What is the 'Samye Project' and its connection to Kagyu Samye Ling?

The Samye Project was initiated following the 16th Karmapa's visit to Kagyu Samye Ling in Scotland in 1977. It represents an effort to further the establishment and development of Tibetan Buddhism in the West, with Samye Ling expanding to centers in over 20 countries.

How did figures like Anagarika Dharmapala influence Buddhism's reception in the West?

Anagarika Dharmapala was a key figure in promoting Buddhism globally. His passionate speeches at the 1893 World Parliament of Religions and subsequent speaking tours in the US helped introduce Buddhist teachings and foster interest among Westerners.

What is the role of Buddhist meditation in contemporary Western practice?

Meditation is a central practice in most modern Western Buddhist groups, especially among converts. Centers often offer meditation retreats and mindfulness training, sometimes presented as secular techniques influenced by psychology.

Buddhism In The West Wiki: The Lotus in the West: An Exploration of Buddhism's Transcontinental Journey

Overview

Defining Western Buddhism

Buddhism in the West broadly encompasses the knowledge and practice of Buddhism outside of Asia, within the Western world. This phenomenon involves a complex interplay of historical encounters, cultural adaptations, and the evolving spiritual landscape of diverse societies.

Historical Roots

Interactions between Western civilization and Buddhist cultures date back millennia, beginning with Greek colonies in India during the Hellenistic period. These early encounters laid the groundwork for Greco-Buddhism and its artistic expressions.

Modern Growth

The 20th century witnessed a significant expansion of Buddhism in the West, driven by factors such as globalization, immigration, increased academic study, and a growing interest among Westerners seeking alternatives to traditional religious frameworks.

Premodern Encounters

Greco-Buddhism

Following Alexander the Great's conquests, Greek colonists in Bactria and India engaged with Buddhism, leading to the development of Greco-Buddhism. This cultural fusion is evident in the art and symbolism of the Gandharan civilization, where Greek artistic traditions influenced Buddhist iconography.

Indo-Greek kings like Menander I adopted Buddhist symbolism, and the scripture Milinda Panha details his conversion. Greek monks participated in Buddhist ceremonies, demonstrating a significant early integration.

Pyrrhonism and Buddhism

The philosopher Pyrrho, influenced by Alexander's Indian campaign, developed Pyrrhonism. Scholars note parallels between Pyrrhonist skepticism and Buddhist concepts like epoché (suspension of judgment) and the goal of ataraxia (tranquility), akin to Nirvana.

The emphasis on suspending judgment about non-evident matters and the goal of achieving inner peace resonate with Buddhist teachings on detachment and the cessation of suffering. Some theories suggest potential influence from Buddhist texts on Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy.

Roman World Interactions

Classical Roman writers documented instances of interaction with Indian religious figures, including a sramana (a term encompassing Buddhist monks) who demonstrated faith through self-immolation in Athens. Early Christian writers also noted similarities between Buddhist narratives and Christian traditions.

Accounts from figures like Nicolaus of Damascus and Dio Cassius suggest awareness of Indian religious practices. Christian figures like Clement of Alexandria mentioned Buddha, and the legend of Barlaam and Josaphat is derived from the Buddha's life story.

Early Modern & Colonial Encounters

Missionary Accounts

Jesuit missionaries in Asia, such as Francis Xavier and Ippolito Desideri, provided detailed early accounts of Buddhist doctrines and practices. These reports often framed Buddhism as a rival to Christianity, prompting further study for apologetic purposes.

Missionaries noted similarities with Christianity (e.g., monastic orders, virgin birth) but often interpreted them as demonic corruption. Criticisms focused on Buddhist views of rebirth, idol worship, and the denial of an immortal soul.

Scholarly Foundations

The late 18th century saw the rise of Sanskrit and Oriental studies in European universities, making Buddhist texts more accessible. Scholars like Eugène Burnouf laid groundwork for studying Sanskrit Buddhist literature and Pali grammars.

Early works included translations of the Lotus Sutra, Pali grammars, and dictionaries. The founding of the Pali Text Society in 1881 by T.W. Rhys Davids was pivotal for translating the Pali Canon.

Buddhist Modernism

Reconciling with Modernity

Buddhist modernism, emerging in the 19th and 20th centuries, sought to reconcile Buddhism with modern science, rationalism, and Western philosophical thought. Key figures like Henry Steel Olcott and Paul Carus promoted Buddhism as a rational, scientific religion.

This movement emphasized demythologization, compatibility with science (like evolution), social engagement, and the primacy of reason and personal experience over blind faith.

Influential Voices

Sir Edwin Arnold's poem The Light of Asia (1879) popularized Buddhism among Western intellectuals. The Theosophical Society, with figures like Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, played a role in early conversions and the revival of Buddhist education.

Olcott's Buddhist Catechism became a foundational text. D.T. Suzuki's writings were instrumental in popularizing Zen Buddhism, influencing Western thinkers, artists, and psychologists.

Philosophical Resonance

Western philosophers like Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche engaged with Buddhist ideas, finding resonance in concepts of suffering, detachment, and atheistic frameworks, though often with critical perspectives.

Schopenhauer praised Buddhism as the "best of all religions," while Nietzsche saw it as realistic and "Beyond Good and Evil," albeit with potential nihilistic undertones.

Zen Buddhism

Popularization

Zen Buddhism gained significant traction in the West, particularly after World War II, fueled by the counterculture movement and influential figures like Shunryu Suzuki. His book, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind, became a classic.

Prominent institutions include the San Francisco Zen Center (Suzuki), Zen Center of Los Angeles (Maezumi), and the International Zen Association (Deshimaru). The Kwan Um School of Zen represents Korean Seon.

Western Adaptations

Western Zen often emphasizes lay practice, monastic disciplines for laypeople, and gender equality, differing from traditional Asian forms. It is frequently described as Anglicized, democratized, and tailored to modern lifestyles.

Zen in the West is often presented as a secular practice, focusing on meditation and psychological insights, sometimes blending with Western esoteric traditions.

Tibetan Buddhism

Post-1950s Growth

The Chinese occupation of Tibet led to a Tibetan diaspora, significantly increasing interest in Tibetan Buddhism in the West. The Dalai Lama's global advocacy and charismatic presence have been pivotal in this spread.

Influential lamas like Chögyam Trungpa, Thubten Yeshe, Thubten Zopa Rinpoche, and Geshe Kelsang Gyatso established numerous teaching centers and organizations.

Institutions and Influence

Organizations like the Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition (FPMT) and Shambhala International have established extensive networks. Tibetan Buddhism has largely retained its traditional doctrines and practices in the West.

Examples include Kagyu Samye Ling in Scotland, Naropa University in Colorado, and numerous centers under the guidance of the Dalai Lama, fostering a strong connection to Tibetan culture and spirituality.

Theravada Buddhism

Insight Meditation

The Vipassana (Insight Meditation) movement, originating from Asian masters, gained prominence in the West through figures like Jack Kornfield, Joseph Goldstein, and Sharon Salzberg. They established influential centers like the Insight Meditation Society.

This tradition emphasizes meditation practice, often presented secularly, focusing on mindfulness and psychological insights, with minimal ritual or doctrinal emphasis.

Traditional Communities

Traditional Theravada communities, often established by Asian immigrants, exist alongside convert movements. Monastic communities following the Thai Forest Tradition have also established a presence in the West.

Notable examples include the Washington Buddhist Vihara (USA), Amaravati Buddhist Monastery (UK), and Bodhinyana Monastery (Australia), maintaining traditional monastic structures.

Contemporary Trends

Growth and Demographics

Buddhism is one of the fastest-growing religions in some Western nations. It appeals predominantly to middle and upper-middle-class, urban, left-leaning populations, particularly among converts.

Immigration, globalization, increased literacy, and the decline of Christian hegemony contribute to its spread. Convert Buddhism often differs from ethnic Buddhism in its practices and organizational structures.

Adaptation and Innovation

Western Buddhism often integrates with Western psychology and psychotherapy. Some scholars propose the emergence of a "Navayana" or new vehicle, characterized by non-denominationalism and adaptation to modern contexts.

The focus on meditation, secular presentation, and social engagement are hallmarks of contemporary Western Buddhism, reflecting a synthesis of Eastern wisdom and Western cultural values.

Challenges and Controversies

Issues such as charismatic authority, sex scandals, and controversial teachings have affected some Western Buddhist organizations, highlighting the challenges of balancing spiritual authority with institutional accountability.

Analysis of these issues points to the organizational transitions from charismatic leadership to more structured governance, and the critical need for transparency and ethical oversight.

Cultural Impact

Popular Culture Integration

Buddhist imagery and figures, particularly the Dalai Lama, have been increasingly appropriated by popular culture, including film, advertising, and commercial products, reflecting Buddhism's growing visibility.

Hollywood films like Kundun and Little Buddha have brought Buddhist narratives to wider audiences. The commercialization of Buddhist symbols and practices is a notable trend.

Commercialization

A minor industry has emerged to cater to Western Buddhist practitioners, providing items such as meditation cushions, ritual implements, and Buddhist literature, further integrating the practice into consumer culture.

This commercial aspect reflects the adaptation of Buddhist practices to meet the needs and preferences of a Western lay audience.

Temples & Monasteries

North American Centers

Major centers like the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas (California) and Hsi Lai Temple (California) represent significant Buddhist architectural and community hubs. Japanese immigrant communities established early institutions like the Buddhist Churches of America.

These centers often serve dual roles as places of worship and cultural preservation, reflecting the diverse origins of Buddhism in North America.

European Foundations

Europe hosts significant Buddhist institutions, including Das Buddhistische Haus in Berlin (Germany), considered Europe's oldest Theravada center, and Kagyu Samye Ling in Scotland, a key Tibetan Buddhist center.

The first Buddhist monastery in Europe, Datsan Gunzechoinei, was established by Buryat Buddhists in St. Petersburg, Russia.

South American Hubs

South America, particularly Brazil, has a notable Buddhist presence, largely influenced by Japanese immigration and conversion. The Zu Lai Temple in Brazil is the largest Buddhist temple in South America.

These centers reflect the growing diversity and establishment of Buddhism across continents, adapting to local cultural contexts.

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References

The Questions of King Milinda, Translation by T. W. Rhys Davids, 1890

de Jong, J.W. A Brief History of Buddhist Studies in Europe and America, The Eastern Buddhist NEW SERIES, Vol. 7, No. 2 (October, 1974), pp. 49-82

Nietzsche, The Anti-Christ, R. J. Hollingdale (Trans and Ed.) (Harmondsworth: Penguin), No. 20, p.129.

Elman, Benjamin A. Nietzsche and Buddhism, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 44, No. 4. (OctoberâDecember, 1983), pp. 671-686.

Rick Anthony Furtak, Jonathan Ellsworth, James D. Reid (editors) Thoreau's Importance for Philosophy, p. 215.

Fields, Rick, How the Swans Came to the Lake: A Narrative History of Buddhism in America, chapter 8, II.

Turner, Alicia (2010). "The Irish Pongyi in colonial Burma: the confrontations and challenges of U Dhammaloka". Contemporary Buddhism. 11 (2): 129â172. doi:10.1080/14639947.2010.530070.

Cox, Laurence (2010b). "The politics of Buddhist revival: U Dhammaloka as social movement organiser" (PDF). Contemporary Buddhism. 11 (2): 173â227. doi:10.1080/14639947.2010.530071. ISSN 1463-9947.

Guzel F. Mrathuzina, Russian Indology: Periodization, Science and Education Organization, Problematics and Specialization

Gangodawila Chandima, A Critical Appraisal of the Contribution of Germany and France to Sanskrit Studies, 2010, p. 94.

"80th anniversary of Das Buddhistische Haus in Berlin â Frohnau, Germany". Daily News (Sri Lanka). April 24, 2004. Retrieved November 9, 2014.

Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 299.

Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 300.

Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 303.

Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p. 305.

Latin, Don (2005-01-23). "Bridging Eastern and Western Buddhism". San Francisco Chronicle.

Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 306.

Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 308-309.

Coleman, James William, The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, p. 5.

Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 310.

Bluck, R. (2006). British Buddhism: Teachings, practice and development. Routledge critical studies in Buddhism. London: Routledge. p. 129

Mills, Martin (2003) Identity, Ritual and State in Tibetan Buddhism â The Foundations of Authority in Gelukpa Monasticism, p. 366, Routledge

Seegers, Eva, "The Innovative StÅ«pa Project in Andalusia, Spain: A Discussion on Visual Representations of Tibetan Buddhist Art in Europe", The Journal of the British Association for the Study of Religions, pp. 27-30

A full list of references for this article are available at the Buddhism in the West Wikipedia page

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Overview 🌍

🌐 Defining Western Buddhism

⏳ Historical Roots

📈 Modern Growth

Premodern Encounters 🏛️

🇬🇷 Greco-Buddhism

🤔 Pyrrhonism and Buddhism

🇻🇦 Roman World Interactions

Early Modern & Colonial Encounters 🚢

🌏 Missionary Accounts

📚 Scholarly Foundations

Buddhist Modernism ✨

💡 Reconciling with Modernity

✍️ Influential Voices

🗣️ Philosophical Resonance

Zen Buddhism 禅

🧘 Popularization

🇺🇸 Western Adaptations

Tibetan Buddhism 🏔️

✈️ Post-1950s Growth

🏫 Institutions and Influence

Theravada Buddhism 🌳

🧘‍♀️ Insight Meditation

🏛️ Traditional Communities

Contemporary Trends 📊

📈 Growth and Demographics

🔄 Adaptation and Innovation

⚠️ Challenges and Controversies

Cultural Impact 🎭

🎬 Popular Culture Integration

🛍️ Commercialization

Temples & Monasteries 🏯

🇺🇸 North American Centers

🇪🇺 European Foundations

🌎 South American Hubs

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

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❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

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References

📜 References

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To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Overview

Defining Western Buddhism

Historical Roots

Modern Growth

Premodern Encounters

Greco-Buddhism

Pyrrhonism and Buddhism

Roman World Interactions

Early Modern & Colonial Encounters

Missionary Accounts

Scholarly Foundations

Buddhist Modernism

Reconciling with Modernity

Influential Voices

Philosophical Resonance

Zen Buddhism

Popularization

Western Adaptations

Tibetan Buddhism

Post-1950s Growth

Institutions and Influence

Theravada Buddhism

Insight Meditation

Traditional Communities

Contemporary Trends

Growth and Demographics

Adaptation and Innovation

Challenges and Controversies

Cultural Impact

Popular Culture Integration

Commercialization

Temples & Monasteries

North American Centers

European Foundations

South American Hubs

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice