Who was Carl Schmitt, and what were his primary areas of focus?

Carl Schmitt was a German jurist, author, and political theorist active in the 20th century. He wrote extensively on political power, legal theory, continental philosophy, and political theology, becoming known for his critiques of parliamentary democracy, liberalism, and cosmopolitanism.

What are the key controversies surrounding Carl Schmitt's legacy?

Carl Schmitt's legacy is controversial primarily due to his intellectual support for and active involvement with Nazism. While recognized as an acute analyst of liberal constitutionalism, his proposed solutions were seen by some as far worse than the problems they aimed to address, and his ideas have been linked to modern authoritarian trends.

When and where was Carl Schmitt born and when did he die?

Carl Schmitt was born on July 11, 1888, in Plettenberg, German Empire, and he died on April 7, 1985, in Plettenberg, West Germany, at the age of 96.

What were Carl Schmitt's early academic achievements and where did he study law?

Carl Schmitt studied law at the Universities of Berlin, Munich, and Strasbourg. He earned his doctorate in 1910 with a thesis titled *Über Schuld und Schuldarten* (On Guilt and Types of Guilt) and his habilitation in 1916 with *Der Wert des Staates und die Bedeutung des Einzelnen* (The Value of the State and the Significance of the Individual), laying groundwork for his later theories.

What was Carl Schmitt's relationship with Catholicism, and how did it evolve?

Carl Schmitt was a devoted Roman Catholic until his break with the church in the mid-1920s. His diary entries around 1914 hinted at a crisis of faith, with some biographers suggesting that troubled relationships with women may have contributed to his estrangement from the faith.

Where did Carl Schmitt hold academic positions, and what were some of his key early publications?

Schmitt held professorships at universities including Greifswald (1921), Bonn (1921), Technical University of Munich (1928), Cologne (1933), and Berlin (1933-1945). During this period, he published influential works such as *Die Diktatur* (On Dictatorship) in 1921 and *Politische Theologie* (Political Theology) in 1922.

What was the significance of the *Preußen contra Reich* case in 1932 for Carl Schmitt's career?

In 1932, Schmitt served as counsel for the Reich government in the *Preußen contra Reich* case, which concerned the deposition of the Prussian state government by the Reich. His legal arguments supported the Reich government's actions, contributing to the Weimar Republic's federal crisis known as the *Preußenschlag*.

What was Carl Schmitt's reaction to Hitler's appointment as Chancellor in 1933, and what did he believe was surpassed?

Upon Hitler's appointment as Chancellor in 1933, Schmitt remarked that 'Hegel died,' signifying his belief that Hegel's concept of the 'bureaucratic class' or *Beamtenstaat* had been superseded. Schmitt viewed this bureaucratic class, with its reverence for norms, as an impediment to sovereign executive authority.

How did Carl Schmitt provide ideological justification for the Nazi regime?

Schmitt joined the Nazi Party in May 1933 and utilized his legal and political theories to legitimize the regime. He provided legal justification for actions like the Enabling Act of 1933 and the Night of the Long Knives, framing Hitler's authority as the highest form of justice and advocating for the *Führerprinzip* based on the German people's racial composition.

What accusations led to Schmitt's diminished standing within the Nazi Party?

In December 1936, the SS publication *Das Schwarze Korps* accused Schmitt of being an opportunist, a Hegelian state thinker, and a Catholic whose antisemitism was merely a pretense. These criticisms, stemming from his perceived ideological inconsistencies and Catholic background, led to his resignation from certain party leadership roles.

What was Carl Schmitt's stance on his actions and involvement with the Nazi state after World War II?

After being interned by American forces, Carl Schmitt returned to his hometown and remained unrepentant for his role in the Nazi state. His refusal to undergo denazification prevented him from returning to academic positions, though he continued his studies and received visitors like Ernst Jünger and Jacob Taubes.

What key concept did Carl Schmitt develop in his 1922 work, *Political Theology*?

In *Political Theology*, Carl Schmitt famously defined the sovereign as 'he who decides on the exception.' This concept, elaborated from his earlier work *On Dictatorship*, posits that sovereignty lies in the power to suspend the normal legal order during a state of exception (*Ausnahmezustand*) to address existential threats.

How did Carl Schmitt define 'the political' in his influential essay *The Concept of the Political*?

Schmitt defined 'the political' not as a distinct domain like economics or religion, but as the most essential aspect of identity. He argued that the political is the existential basis that determines any other domain when it reaches a point of conflict, specifically through the distinction between 'friend' and 'enemy'.

What is Carl Schmitt's most famous formulation regarding the basis of state sovereignty?

Carl Schmitt's most famous formulation states that the basis of state sovereignty and autonomy rests upon the distinction between friend and enemy. He emphasized that this distinction is existential, meaning the enemy is fundamentally different and alien, potentially leading to intense conflict.

What did Carl Schmitt argue about political concepts in *The Concept of the Political*?

Schmitt argued that all political concepts, images, and terms possess a polemical meaning, being intrinsically tied to specific conflicts and situations. He believed these concepts become abstract and meaningless when the context of friend-enemy grouping disappears.

What was Carl Schmitt's critique of Romantic conservatism in his work *Political Romanticism*?

In *Political Romanticism* (1926), Schmitt critiqued Romantic conservatism for being unrealistic for modern politics, viewing its aim to restore the *ancien régime* as unfeasible. He instead championed thinkers who advocated for dictatorship over those seeking mere restoration.

What is *The Nomos of the Earth* (1950) about, and what did Schmitt defend regarding European achievements?

*The Nomos of the Earth* is Schmitt's geopolitical work describing the origin, character, and decline of the Eurocentric global order. He defended European achievements in creating global international law and civilizing war by limiting it to sovereign states, viewing the European state as a key product of Occidental rationalism.

What did Carl Schmitt's *Theory of the Partisan* (1963) analyze?

Schmitt's *Theory of the Partisan* analyzed the transformation of warfare in the post-European age, focusing on the figure of the partisan (guerrilla fighter). He saw this phenomenon as ushering in a new theory of war and enmity, with implications for understanding modern conflicts and terrorism.

What did Carl Schmitt's doctrine of the 'state of exception' justify in the context of the Nazi regime?

Schmitt's 'state of exception' doctrine provided a theoretical legal foundation for the Nazi regime by justifying special executive powers, the suspension of the rule of law, and the derogation of constitutional rights. This doctrine helped clear the path for Hitler's rise to power.

How did Carl Schmitt's ideas influence political thought in China in the 21st century?

Schmitt's theories, particularly his emphasis on state power and critiques of liberalism, have become influential in China, providing intellectual justification for the Chinese Communist Party's rule and modernization efforts. Scholars like Liu Xiaofeng and Jiang Shigong have engaged with his work, finding it useful for addressing contemporary issues.

In what ways has Carl Schmitt's work influenced neoconservatism and the Trump administration in the United States?

Schmitt's work is considered influential on US neoconservatism and the Trump administration, particularly regarding legal opinions justifying executive power during the War on Terror. Concepts like the unitary executive theory and the justification of controversial actions have been linked to Schmitt's writings on sovereignty and states of exception.

What influence has Carl Schmitt's work reportedly had on Vladimir Putin and Russia?

Schmitt's work is noted for influencing Vladimir Putin and Russian political thought, particularly in defending illiberal norms and justifying the exercise of power, such as in disputes with Ukraine. His ideas are seen as a counter to the liberal order and have resonated with Russian Eurasianist philosophy.

What is the core argument of Schmitt's *Political Theology* regarding the state and theology?

In *Political Theology*, Schmitt argues that significant concepts in modern state theory are secularized theological concepts. He posits that political theory addresses the state and its authority in ways analogous to how theology addresses God, highlighting the theological roots of political ideas.

What is the 'friend–enemy distinction' and why is it crucial to Schmitt's concept of the political?

The 'friend–enemy distinction' is Schmitt's core concept defining the political as the most intense form of association and dissociation. It signifies the existence of an existential enemy, whose presence necessitates collective action and defines the boundaries of political identity and state sovereignty.

What did Carl Schmitt critique about liberal democracy in *The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy*?

Schmitt argued that liberal democracy's purported reliance on rational public discourse was a facade, masking the reality of backroom deals made by party elites. He believed liberalism's emphasis on individual rights and separation of powers was fundamentally incompatible with the true nature of democracy, which he saw as the identity of the rulers and the ruled.

What is the significance of the 'state of exception' in Schmitt's political theory?

The 'state of exception' (*Ausnahmezustand*) is central to Schmitt's theory of sovereignty, representing the power to suspend legal norms in times of crisis. He viewed this ability to decide on the exception as the defining characteristic of a sovereign entity.

What did Carl Schmitt's *The Nomos of the Earth* argue about international law?

Schmitt argued that European achievements in international law, particularly the limitation of war to conflicts between sovereign states, represented a 'civilizing' of warfare. He saw the European sovereign state as a key product of rationalism that shaped the modern world order.

What did Carl Schmitt's *Hamlet or Hecuba* explore regarding literature and politics?

In *Hamlet or Hecuba*, Schmitt used Shakespeare's play to develop a theory of myth and politics, arguing that *Hamlet*'s significance lies in its integration of history and the deformation of the avenger figure. This analysis served as a cultural foundation for his concept of political representation.

What is the main argument of Schmitt's *Theory of the Partisan* regarding modern warfare?

*Theory of the Partisan* analyzes the partisan figure as a key phenomenon indicating a new theory of war and enmity in the post-European age. Schmitt saw the partisan's irregular warfare as a precursor to understanding modern conflicts and terrorism.

What did Carl Schmitt's biographers claim about his personal life and its impact?

Biographers like Reinhard Mehring suggested that Schmitt's private life was deeply troubled by extreme anti-semitism, self-destructive sexuality, and resentment towards bourgeois life, which they argued had a profound impact on his real-life activities and political thought.

How did Schmitt's concept of 'political theology' influence later thinkers?

Schmitt's concept that political concepts are secularized theological concepts has been influential in contemporary political theology. Thinkers like Jacob Taubes engaged with Schmitt's work, though often emphasizing the political aspect of theological claims rather than the theological derivation of political ones.

What specific legal doctrines or actions during the War on Terror have been compared to Schmitt's writings?

Legal opinions justifying the Bush administration's actions, such as the 'unlawful combatant' status to bypass Geneva Conventions, the Abu Ghraib torture, NSA electronic surveillance, and excesses of the Patriot Act, have been noted for mimicking Schmitt's writings on executive power and states of exception.

What trend did Professor David Luban observe regarding Schmitt's presence in legal databases?

Professor David Luban observed a significant increase in references to Carl Schmitt in the American legal database Lexis.com from the 1980s through the 2000s, indicating a growing scholarly interest in his work during that period.

What is the 'Preußenschlag' and what was Schmitt's role in it?

The 'Preußenschlag' refers to the Reich government's deposition of the Prussian state government in 1932, which effectively destroyed federalism in the Weimar Republic. Carl Schmitt served as counsel for the Reich government in the subsequent legal case, *Preußen contra Reich*, supporting the government's actions.

What was the main argument in Schmitt's *Political Romanticism* regarding conservatism?

In *Political Romanticism*, Schmitt critiqued Romantic conservatism as unrealistic for modern politics, viewing its aim to restore the *ancien régime* as unfeasible. He favored thinkers who advocated for dictatorship over those seeking mere restoration.

What critique did Schmitt offer of Thomas Hobbes' state theory in *The Leviathan in the State Theory of Thomas Hobbes*?

Schmitt critiqued Hobbes' view of the state as a 'machine' for continuing Cartesian mind-body dualism and leading to political neutralization. He also criticized Hobbes' allowance for private disagreement on miracles, which he saw as undermining the state's substantive truth and opening the door to liberal pluralism.

What did Schmitt's concept of 'political theology' suggest about state theory?

Schmitt's concept of 'political theology' suggests that significant concepts in modern state theory are secularized versions of theological concepts. He argued that political theory addresses the state and its authority in ways analogous to how theology addresses God, revealing the theological origins of political ideas.

What was the main thrust of Schmitt's critique of liberal democracy in *The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy*?

Schmitt argued that liberal democracy's purported reliance on rational public discourse was a facade, masking the reality of backroom deals made by party elites. He believed liberalism's emphasis on individual rights and separation of powers was fundamentally incompatible with the true nature of democracy, which he saw as the identity of the rulers and the ruled.

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Biographical Foundations

Early Life and Education

Born in Plettenberg, German Empire, Carl Schmitt (1888–1985) embarked on his academic journey in law. He pursued legal studies at the Universities of Berlin, Munich, and Strasbourg, culminating in doctoral and habilitation degrees from Strasbourg in 1910 and 1916, respectively. His early academic work, including his doctoral thesis "On Guilt and Types of Guilt," laid the groundwork for his later theoretical explorations.

Religious and Intellectual Influences

Schmitt's early life was marked by a devout Roman Catholic upbringing, though he later distanced himself from the Church. During his time in Munich, he attended lectures by Max Weber, engaging with concepts like "Politics as a Vocation." These intellectual encounters, alongside his personal spiritual journey, profoundly shaped his perspective on the relationship between theology and political structures.

Academic and Legal Trajectory

Professorships and Key Publications

Schmitt held academic positions at several German universities, including Greifswald, Bonn, Munich, Cologne, and Berlin. During this period, he published seminal works that defined his critical stance against liberal democracy and parliamentary systems. His 1922 essay, Political Theology, introduced the concept that "The sovereign is he who decides on the exception," a cornerstone of his political theory.

Constitutional Theory and Practice

Schmitt actively engaged with contemporary legal and political issues. He served as counsel for the Reich government in the significant 1932 case Preussen contra Reich, concerning the federal structure of the Weimar Republic. This involvement highlighted his theoretical contributions to understanding constitutional crises and the nature of state power.

Political Engagement and Controversy

Nazi Party Affiliation

Schmitt joined the Nazi Party in May 1933, aligning himself with the regime and providing theoretical justifications for its actions. He held prominent positions, including editor-in-chief of the Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung and president of the Association of National Socialist German Jurists. His writings from this period, such as "The Leader Protects the Law," supported the Nazi legal and political order.

Despite his initial enthusiasm, Schmitt's position within the Nazi hierarchy became precarious due to internal party critiques questioning his loyalty and intellectual alignment. The SS publication Das Schwarze Korps accused him of opportunism and adherence to Hegelian and Catholic thought, leading to his resignation from certain party posts. However, he retained his professorship and state council position, continuing his work under the regime until the end of World War II.

Post-War Isolation and Continued Work

Following World War II, Schmitt was interned by American forces. Barred from academic positions due to his Nazi past and refusal of denazification processes, he lived in relative isolation in Plettenberg. Despite this, he continued his intellectual work, focusing on international law and engaging with visiting scholars, maintaining a significant, albeit controversial, intellectual presence.

Seminal Works and Concepts

The Dictatorship and Political Theology

In The Dictatorship (1921), Schmitt analyzed the Weimar Constitution, emphasizing the President's power to declare a "state of exception" (Ausnahmezustand). Political Theology (1922) further developed this, defining sovereignty as the authority to decide on exceptions, arguing that "all significant concepts of the modern theory of the state are secularized theological concepts."

The Concept of the Political

Schmitt's 1932 essay, "The Concept of the Political," posits that the essence of politics lies in the distinction between "friend" and "enemy." This existential grouping, he argued, defines political identity and necessitates a sovereign power capable of decisive action, distinguishing the political realm from economic or moral spheres.

The friend-enemy distinction is not based on moral judgment but on the potential for intense, existential conflict between political entities. Schmitt contended that political concepts are polemical, deriving their meaning from concrete conflicts. This framework was later applied to justify Nazi ideology's identification and targeting of enemies.

Nomos of the Earth

Published in 1950, The Nomos of the Earth examines the historical development and decline of the Eurocentric international legal order. Schmitt viewed the European sovereign state as a product of rationalism that civilized warfare by limiting it to state-vs-state conflicts. He analyzed the rise of the New World and the United States' role in shaping a new global order.

Literary and Historical Analysis

Schmitt also applied his theoretical lens to literature and history. Works like Hamlet or Hecuba (1956) explored the interplay of aesthetics, politics, and history through literary analysis. Theory of the Partisan (1962) re-examined concepts of war and enmity in the post-European age, influencing later scholarship on conflict and terrorism.

Enduring Legacy and Debate

Contemporary Relevance

Schmitt's ideas continue to resonate across the political spectrum, influencing contemporary discussions on sovereignty, constitutionalism, and international relations. Scholars argue his theories have impacted political thought in nations like China and Russia, and movements such as neoconservatism and Trumpism, highlighting the persistent relevance of his critiques of liberal democracy.

Critical Reception

While recognized as a significant thinker, Schmitt remains highly controversial due to his Nazi affiliations and the perceived authoritarian nature of his theories. Critics, like Richard Wolin, note that his proposed "cure" for the weaknesses of liberalism proved far worse than the perceived disease. His concept of the "state of exception" has been particularly influential, albeit debated, in analyses of modern governance and emergency powers.

Influence on Left and Right

Schmitt's work is referenced by both the intellectual left and right. Thinkers like Giorgio Agamben and Chantal Mouffe engage with his concepts of political theology and the state of exception. Simultaneously, his critiques of liberalism and emphasis on decisive leadership find resonance within conservative and nationalist circles, demonstrating the complex and contested nature of his intellectual legacy.

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References

Oliver W. Lembcke, Claudia Ritzi, Gary S. Schaal (eds.): ZeitgenÃ¶ssische Demokratietheorien: Band 1: Normative Demokratietheorien, Springer, 2014, p. 331.

Vinx 2019, ch. 5 "Liberal Cosmopolitanism and ...".

McCormick, John P. Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism: Against Politics as Technology. 1st paperback ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999:86â87.

MÃ¼ller, Jan-Werner. A Dangerous Mind: Carl Schmitt in Post-War European Thought. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003:xxix.

Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung, 38, 1934; trans. as "The FÃ¼hrer Protects Justice" in Detlev Vagts, Carl Schmitt's Ultimate Emergency: The Night of the Long Knives (2012) 87(2) The Germanic Review 203.

Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: the hidden dialogue, Heinrich Meier, University of Chicago Press 1995, 123

Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: the hidden dialogue, Heinrich Meier, University of Chicago Press 1995, 125

Howse, Robert. (2003). The use and abuse of Leo Strauss in the Schmitt revival on the German rightâThe case of Heinrich Meier. University of Michigan Law School.

LÃ¶with, Karl. (1995). âThe Occasional Decisionism of Carl Schmitt.â in K. LÃ¶with, Martin Heidegger and European Nihilism, R. Wolin (ed.) and G. Steiner (trans.), New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 37â69.

See for example Lebovic, Nitzan (2008), "The Jerusalem School: The Theo-Political Hour", New German Critique (103), 97â120.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Carl Schmitt Wikipedia page

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This content has been generated by an AI model for educational purposes, drawing exclusively from the provided source material. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and maintain an academic tone suitable for advanced study, the information reflects a specific dataset and may not encompass all nuances or interpretations of Carl Schmitt's complex and controversial body of work.

This is not political or legal advice. The material presented is intended for informational and analytical purposes only and should not substitute professional consultation in political science, law, or history. Readers are encouraged to consult primary sources and diverse scholarly analyses for a comprehensive understanding.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any interpretations, omissions, or actions taken based on the information provided.

Carl Schmitt: Architect of Political Thought

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Biographical Foundations 👤

🎂 Early Life and Education

✝️ Religious and Intellectual Influences

Academic and Legal Trajectory 🏛️

🎓 Professorships and Key Publications

⚖️ Constitutional Theory and Practice

Political Engagement and Controversy 🚩

NSDAP Nazi Party Affiliation

🌍 Post-War Isolation and Continued Work

Seminal Works and Concepts ✍️

⚖️ The Dictatorship and Political Theology

🤝 The Concept of the Political

🌍 Nomos of the Earth

🎭 Literary and Historical Analysis

Enduring Legacy and Debate 💡

🔄 Contemporary Relevance

🤔 Critical Reception

🗣️ Influence on Left and Right

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

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📜 Important Considerations

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Biographical Foundations

Early Life and Education

Religious and Intellectual Influences

Academic and Legal Trajectory

Professorships and Key Publications

Constitutional Theory and Practice

Political Engagement and Controversy

Nazi Party Affiliation

Post-War Isolation and Continued Work

Seminal Works and Concepts

The Dictatorship and Political Theology

The Concept of the Political

Nomos of the Earth

Literary and Historical Analysis

Enduring Legacy and Debate

Contemporary Relevance

Critical Reception

Influence on Left and Right

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Considerations