What is Commedia dell'arte, and what are its alternative names?

Commedia dell'arte was an early form of professional theatre that originated from Italian theatre and was popular throughout Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries. It was also known in English as Italian comedy, and in Italian as *commedia alla maschera*, *commedia improvviso*, and *commedia dell'arte all'improvviso*. The term itself translates literally to 'comedy of the profession', highlighting its nature as a professional theatrical form.

What are the defining characteristics of Commedia dell'arte performances?

Commedia dell'arte is characterized by masked 'types,' which are standardized archetypical characters identified by their names, costumes, and functions within the comedy. Performances combined both scripted and improvised elements; key plot points, character entrances, and exits were scripted, but actors were expected to improvise new gags on stage. A unique feature was the *lazzo*, a well-known joke or witty routine, often somewhat scripted, and the extensive use of pantomime, particularly by the character Arlecchino, also known as Harlequin.

How did Commedia dell'arte contribute to the development of theatre, particularly regarding actresses?

Commedia dell'arte was instrumental in the rise of actresses, with female roles being played by women as early as the 1560s. This made them the first known professional actresses in Europe since antiquity. Notable early actresses include Isabella Andreini, Lucrezia Di Siena (the first Italian actress known by name from a 1564 contract), Vincenza Armani, and Barbara Flaminia, who were recognized as the first primadonnas and well-documented actresses in Italy and Europe.

What types of characters are typically found in Commedia dell'arte, and can you provide examples?

The characters in Commedia dell'arte usually represent fixed social types and stock characters, often exaggerated 'real characters.' These include foolish old men, devious servants, or military officers full of false bravado. Specific examples mentioned in the source are il Dottore, a know-it-all doctor; Pantalone, a greedy old man; and the *innamorati*, who represent a perfect relationship. These archetypes allowed for immediate audience recognition and engagement.

Where were Commedia dell'arte performances typically held?

Commedia dell'arte was often performed outdoors on platforms or in popular public areas such as a piazza, which is a town square. While many performances were in public spaces, records also indicate that troupes like the Gelosi performed at court and in fixed theatres, such as Teatro Baldrucca in Florence.

What is the geographical reach of Commedia dell'arte's popularity?

Originating in Italy, Commedia dell'arte quickly spread its popularity throughout Europe, reaching as far away as Moscow. This widespread appeal demonstrates its significant cultural impact across the continent.

What are the proposed origins of Commedia dell'arte, according to the text?

The genesis of Commedia dell'arte may be linked to Carnival in Venice, where author and actor Andrea Calmo created the character Il Magnifico by 1570, who is considered the precursor to Pantalone. While Calmo's characters were not masked, the connection to Carnival, a period known for masking, suggests that masks became a convention at some point. Additionally, some historians attempt to trace its origins back to antiquity, citing formal similarities with Roman theatrical traditions like Plautine types and Atellan Farces, which featured crude, masked characters and improvised plots. More recent accounts also link it to medieval jongleurs and prototypes from medieval moralities, such as Hellequin, the source of Harlequin.

How did the northern and southern Italian traditions of Commedia dell'arte differ?

The tradition in northern Italy was centered in Florence, Mantua, and Venice, where major companies operated under the protection of various dukes. Concurrently, a Neapolitan tradition emerged in the south, prominently featuring the stage figure Pulcinella. This character became strongly associated with Naples and later evolved into various types elsewhere, most famously as the puppet character Punch in the Punch and Judy shows popular in England.

When were the first recorded Commedia dell'arte performances, and how did they differ from *commedia erudita*?

The first recorded Commedia dell'arte performances date back to Rome as early as 1551. These performances were typically held outdoors in temporary venues by professional, costumed, and masked actors. This contrasted with *commedia erudita*, which were written comedies presented indoors by untrained and unmasked actors. However, it is noted that this view might be somewhat romanticized, as some Commedia dell'arte troupes, like the Gelosi, also performed written works and at court.

Describe the formation and characteristics of early Commedia dell'arte troupes, such as the Gelosi.

By the mid-16th century, specific troupes of Commedia dell'arte performers began to form, with the Gelosi becoming a distinct company by 1568. In line with Italian Academies, the Gelosi adopted the two-faced Roman god Janus as their impress or coat of arms, symbolizing both their traveling nature and the dual identity of the actor. The Gelosi performed in northern Italy and France, receiving patronage from the King of France, and maintained stability with a core group known as the 'usual ten,' consisting of two *vecchi*, four *innamorati* (two male and two female lovers), two Zanni, a captain, and a *servetta*.

What was the significance of Flaminio Scala's published scenarios?

Flaminio Scala, a former performer with the Gelosi, published the scenarios of the commedia dell'arte around the beginning of the 17th century. This act was an effort to legitimize the theatrical form and ensure its legacy. These scenarios are described as highly structured, built around the symmetry of various character types in duets, such as two Zanni, *vecchi*, *innamorate*, and *innamorati*.

What challenges did female performers face in Commedia dell'arte during the 16th century?

Despite women playing female roles as early as the 1560s, English theatre critics in the 1570s generally denigrated troupes that included female actors, with Ben Jonson even referring to one as a 'tumbling whore.' By the late 1570s, Italian prelates attempted to ban female performers, viewing them as a type of courtesan whose scanty attire and promiscuous lifestyle corrupted young men. However, by the end of the 16th century, actresses had become a standard feature on the Italian stage.

How did Commedia dell'arte evolve in the 17th century, and what role did specific publications play?

By the early 17th century, Zanni comedies transitioned from purely improvisational street performances to more specified and clearly delineated acts and characters. This evolution was influenced by three significant books published during this century: Cecchini's *Fruti della moderne commedia* (1628), Niccolò Barbieri's *La supplica* (1634), and Perrucci's *Dell'arte rapresentativa* (1699). These texts provided firm recommendations for performing practice, which some scholars, like Katritzky, argue led to a more formulaic and stylized acting style, moving away from its improvisational origins.

What was the influence of Commedia dell'arte on French theatre, particularly Molière?

Commedia dell'arte was highly popular in France, where the Comédie-Italienne developed its own repertoire and introduced new masks and characters, while omitting some Italian precursors like Pantalone. French playwrights, notably Molière, drew heavily from Commedia plots and masks to create indigenous theatrical treatments. Molière even shared the stage with the Comédie-Italienne at Petit-Bourbon, and some of his dramatic forms, such as the *tirade*, were derived from the Italian *tirata*.

How did Commedia dell'arte change in the 18th century, and what was Marivaux's contribution?

In the early 17th century, Commedia dell'arte moved from city limits to *théâtre de la foire*, or fair theatres, evolving towards a more pantomimed style. After the Italian comedians were dispatched from France in 1697, the form transformed in the 18th century as genres like *comédie larmoyante* gained popularity in France. Pierre de Marivaux significantly influenced this change by softening the Commedia, introducing true emotion to the stage, and contributing to Harlequin's increased prominence during this period.

When was the term 'Commedia dell'arte' coined, and how did the form influence other European theatrical traditions?

The term 'commedia dell'arte' itself was coined in the mid-18th century. The form evolved differently across Europe, adapting to each country's preferences. For instance, 18th-century pantomime, especially the character of Harlequin, owes its origins to Commedia dell'arte character types. The popular Punch and Judy puppet shows in England are based on the Pulcinella mask from Neapolitan versions of the form. In Italy, Commedia masks and plots influenced *opera buffa* and the works of composers like Rossini, Verdi, and Puccini.

What impact did the Napoleonic occupation have on Commedia dell'arte in Italy?

During the Napoleonic occupation of Italy, the Carnival masks of Commedia dell'arte were utilized by reformers and critics of French Imperial rule to conceal their identities while promoting political agendas, challenging social norms, and openly criticizing the regime. In response, Napoleon outlawed Commedia dell'arte in 1797 to suppress its impromptu style as a partisan platform. As a result, the form was not reborn in Venice until 1979.

What were 'compagnie' in Commedia dell'arte, and what was the background of their actors?

Compagnie, or companies, were troupes of actors in Commedia dell'arte, with each actor having a specific function or role. The actors came from diverse backgrounds, including doctors, priests, and soldiers, many of whom joined troupes without prior theatre experience, drawn by the excitement and prevalence of theatre in Italian society.

How did Commedia dell'arte troupes operate and manage their performances?

Actors were known to move between troupes 'on loan,' and companies frequently collaborated, especially if they shared a patron or performed in the same general area. Members also branched off to form their own troupes, such as the Ganassa and the Gelosi. These companies traveled extensively throughout Europe from their early period, carrying large carts laden with supplies for their nomadic performances. They strategically performed at public fairs and celebrations, particularly in wealthier towns, and were often invited by high-ranking officials for patronage. Troupes preferred not to stay in one place too long to avoid their act becoming 'stale,' moving on while popular to ensure future invitations or payments. Pricing for performances varied based on the location's wealth, length of stay, and government regulations.

What were some of the challenges and criticisms faced by Commedia dell'arte troupes?

Magistrates and clergy were not always welcoming to the traveling Commedia dell'arte troupes, especially during periods of plague, due to their itinerant nature. The performances also drew criticism for actors stripping nearly naked and storylines often descending into crude situations with overt sexuality. The French Parliament, for instance, deemed that these performances taught nothing but 'lewdness and adultery...of both sexes.' The term *vagabondi* (vagabond) was used derogatorily to refer to the *comici*, reflecting their nomadic lifestyle, which was often necessitated by persecution from the Church, civil authorities, and rival theatre organizations.

Name some of the well-known Commedia dell'arte troupes from the Golden Age.

The Golden Age of Commedia dell'arte, spanning from 1580 to 1605, featured several famous troupes, including the Gelosi, Confidenti, and Accessi. These names, often appropriated from Italian Academies, were chosen to convey a sense of daring and enterprise, thereby lending legitimacy to the companies.

What were the aesthetic principles that defined Commedia dell'arte characters?

According to Castagno, the aesthetic of exaggeration, distortion, anti-humanism (as seen in the masked types), and extensive borrowing rather than originality was characteristic of all arts during the late Italian Renaissance. Theatre historian Martin Green adds that the extravagance of emotion prevalent during Commedia's emergence led to the development of representational moods, where each character embodies a specific emotion such as mockery, sadness, gaiety, or confusion.

How did Commedia dell'arte characters reflect Italian regional identities?

According to 18th-century London theatre critic Baretti, Commedia dell'arte characters were originally intended to be characteristic representatives of specific Italian districts or towns, serving as archetypes. This regional identity extended to their performance, as each character was performed in the specific dialect of the region or town they represented.

What was the practice of character inheritance and marriage within Commedia dell'arte troupes?

Characters in Commedia dell'arte were often passed down from generation to generation within the troupes. Furthermore, characters who were married on stage were frequently married in real life as well, a practice famously exemplified by Francesco and Isabella Andreini. This was believed to enhance the naturalness of performances and strengthen the bonds among troupe members, who emphasized complete unity.

What are the four main stock character groups in Commedia dell'arte?

Commedia dell'arte features four primary stock character groups: Zanni (servants, clowns), *Vecchi* (wealthy old men, masters), *Innamorati* (young upper-class lovers), and Il Capitano (self-styled captains, braggarts).

Provide examples of characters within each of the four stock groups.

Within the Zanni group, characters include Arlecchino (Harlequin), Brighella, Scapino, Pulcinella, and Pedrolino. The *Vecchi* group features Pantalone and il Dottore. The *Innamorati* are typically given names like Flavio and Isabella. Lastly, Il Capitano is a self-styled captain or braggart, who can also be a female character known as La Signora.

Explain the use of masks and costumes in Commedia dell'arte characters.

Each character in Commedia dell'arte has a distinct costume and mask that visually represents their role, helping the audience understand who they are. While masked characters are often referred to as 'masks,' the term *maschere* eventually came to encompass all Commedia dell'arte characters, whether masked or not. Female characters, including female servants, were typically unmasked, though female *amorose* (lovers) were never masked and often wore heavy makeup. Female servants wore bonnets and were portrayed with malicious wit or gossipy gaiety.

Describe the traditional costume of Harlequin in Commedia dell'arte and how it evolved.

Harlequin's original costume consisted of a tight-fitting long jacket and matching trousers adorned with numerous odd-shaped patches, typically in green, yellow, red, and brown. He usually carried a bat and a wallet hanging from his belt, and his soft cap, modeled after Charles IX or Henri II, often featured a rabbit, hare, or fox tail with occasional feathers. In the 17th century, the patches evolved into symmetrical blue, red, and green triangles, and by the 18th century, the iconic diamond-shaped lozenges appeared, with his jacket becoming shorter and his hat changing to a double-pointed style.

What were the characteristic costumes of Il Dottore, Il Capitano, and Pantalone?

Il Dottore's costume was a satirical take on the academic dress of Bolognese scholars, almost entirely black, featuring a long black gown or jacket extending below the knees, a long black robe to his heels, and black shoes, stockings, and breeches. In 1653, Augustin Lolli, a popular Il Dottore actor, modified it to include an enormous black hat, a jacket cut similarly to Louis XIV's style, and a flat ruff. Il Capitano's costume satirized military wear of the period, varying based on his character's origin and the specific time. Pantalone's iconic costume included a tight-fitting jacket with matching trousers, typically paired with a large black coat called a *zimarra*.

What were the common plot themes in Commedia dell'arte?

Conventional plot lines in Commedia dell'arte revolved around themes of sex, jealousy, love, and old age. Many of these basic plot elements can be traced back to the Roman comedies of Plautus and Terence, which themselves were sometimes translations of lost Greek comedies from the 4th century BC. However, it is more likely that the *comici* drew from contemporary novellas, traditional sources, and current events or local news of the day.

How did Commedia dell'arte influence William Shakespeare's works?

Commedia dell'arte had a notable influence on William Shakespeare's works. For example, his play *The Tempest* is drawn from a popular scenario found in the Flaminio Scala collection. Additionally, the character Polonius in *Hamlet* is derived from Pantalone, and Shakespeare's clowns pay homage to the Zanni characters of Commedia dell'arte.

What performance techniques were central to Commedia dell'arte, beyond improvisation?

Beyond improvisation, Commedia dell'arte performances heavily utilized well-rehearsed jokes and stock physical gags known as *lazzi* and *concetti*. They also incorporated on-the-spot improvised and interpolated episodes and routines called *burle*, which typically involved practical jokes. Characters were easily identified by their distinct costumes, masks, and props, such as the slapstick. The dialogue and action were flexible, allowing performers to satirize local scandals, current events, or regional tastes while still incorporating established jokes and punchlines.

Describe the classic, traditional plot structure of a Commedia dell'arte performance.

The classic, traditional plot of a Commedia dell'arte performance typically involves the *innamorati* (young lovers) who are deeply in love and wish to marry, but one or more elders (*vecchi*) prevent their union. This conflict leads the lovers to seek assistance from one or more Zanni (eccentric servants). The story usually concludes happily, with the marriage of the *innamorati* and forgiveness for any wrongdoings that occurred.

How did Commedia dell'arte influence visual art?

The iconography of Commedia dell'arte became a significant field of study, influencing visual art for centuries. Early period painters at Fontainebleau depicted erotic scenes featuring thinly veiled *innamorata* or bare-breasted courtesans/actresses. Flemish painters incorporated Commedia figures into the *vanitas* genre, illustrating the dangers of lust and hedonism. Artists like Lodewyk Toeput, who became Ludovico Pozzoserrato, established Commedia dell'arte as a distinct painting genre. Later, in the 18th century, Watteau's paintings depicted Commedia figures interacting with aristocracy in lush garden settings. Pablo Picasso also drew inspiration, notably in his 1921 painting *Three Musicians* and his costume designs for Stravinsky's 1920 *Pulcinella* ballet. Commedia iconography is also evident in valuable porcelain figurines.

What was the nature of Jacques Callot's etchings related to Commedia dell'arte?

Jacques Callot's etchings, particularly the *Balli di Sfessania* from 1611, are widely considered *capricci*, meaning fanciful or imaginative works, rather than precise depictions of actual Commedia dell'arte dance forms or typical masks. Despite often being reproduced in large formats today, the original prints were quite small, measuring approximately 2x3 inches.

How did Commedia dell'arte influence other forms of performance art, such as ballet and opera?

Commedia dell'arte significantly influenced various performance arts. Its expressive theatre style impacted Molière's comedy and subsequently *ballet d'action*, introducing a new range of expression and choreographic methods. In opera, Commedia figures provided many stock characters; for instance, Mozart's *Don Giovanni* features a puppet show story, and comic servants like Leporello and Figaro have Commedia precedents. Soubrette characters such as Susanna in *Le nozze di Figaro* and Zerlina in *Don Giovanni* recall Columbine. Comic operas by Gaetano Donizetti, like *L'elisir d'amore*, also draw on Commedia stock types. Leoncavallo's *Pagliacci* depicts a Commedia dell'arte company whose real lives mirror their stage performances, and Richard Strauss's *Ariadne auf Naxos* also features Commedia characters. In ballet, Igor Stravinsky's *Petrushka* and *Pulcinella* directly allude to the tradition.

What role did music and dance play in Commedia dell'arte performances?

Music and dance were fundamental to Commedia dell'arte performances, with most incorporating both instrumental and vocal music. Brighella was often depicted with a guitar, and many visual representations of Commedia show *innamorati* singing or figures dancing. It was considered an essential skill for the *innamorati* to be able to sing and know the popular repertoire, with early accounts noting the *comici*'s ability to sing madrigals precisely and beautifully. Dancers (*danzatrice*) likely accompanied the troupes, complementing the general cast of characters.

Which prominent playwrights and composers were influenced by Commedia dell'arte characters and situations?

Numerous playwrights and composers were influenced by Commedia dell'arte. Playwrights include William Shakespeare (*The Tempest*, Polonius in *Hamlet*), Molière (*Les Fourberies de Scapin*), Carlo Goldoni (*The Servant of Two Masters*), Pierre Beaumarchais (Figaro plays), Carlo Gozzi (*The Love for Three Oranges*, *Turandot*), and Steven Berkoff (his adaptation of Kafka's *The Metamorphosis*). In music, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Gaetano Donizetti, Ruggero Leoncavallo (*Pagliacci*), Richard Strauss (*Ariadne auf Naxos*), Robert Schumann (*Carnaval*), and Igor Stravinsky (*Petrushka*, *Pulcinella*) all incorporated Commedia elements into their works.

Where can Commedia dell'arte performances still be seen today?

Commedia dell'arte is still performed seasonally in Denmark at the Peacock Stage of Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen. Additionally, north of Copenhagen at Dyrehavsbakken, daily performances are held for children featuring Pierrot and a puppet version of Pulcinella, which resembles the Punch and Judy shows.

How have modern comedians been linked to the Commedia dell'arte tradition?

Modern comedians, such as Sacha Baron Cohen, whose characters like Ali G, Borat, and Bruno have been discussed in relation to potential Commedia dell'arte origins. This connection stems from Baron Cohen's training by French master clown Philippe Gaulier, whose other students have gone on to become teachers and performers of Commedia dell'arte, suggesting a lineage of influence in physical and character-based comedy.

What is the character Beltrame known for in Commedia dell'arte?

Beltrame is a masked character in Commedia dell'arte who is depicted as a villager pretending to be rich. His costume typically consists of a tunic and a cape.

Describe the character Brighella and his typical costume.

Brighella is a masked character in Commedia dell'arte, known as a smart and vindictive servant or a middle-class character. His costume is a white smock and pants with green trim.

What are the characteristics and costume of Colombina?

Colombina is an unmasked character in Commedia dell'arte, portrayed as a perky maid or servant. Her costume can be colorful, similar to Harlequin's, or simply black and white.

Who is Gianduja, and what does his costume look like?

Gianduja is an unmasked character in Commedia dell'arte, representing an honest peasant who enjoys wine and food. He wears a brown suit and a horn hat.

What defines the character Il Capitano and his attire?

Il Capitano is a masked character in Commedia dell'arte, typically an indigent loner and a braggart. His costume is a military uniform, which varies depending on his character's origin and the period he represents.

What is the role of Il Dottore, and how is he dressed?

Il Dottore is a masked character in Commedia dell'arte, representing the head of the household. He is typically dressed in a black scholarly robe, which is a satirical take on the academic attire of Bolognese scholars.

Describe the *Innamorati* characters and their appearance.

The *Innamorati* are unmasked characters in Commedia dell'arte, portraying high-class, hopeless lovers. They are dressed in the fashionable attire of the time period and usually wear heavy makeup instead of masks.

What are the key features of Pantalone's character and costume?

Pantalone is a masked character in Commedia dell'arte, depicted as an older wealthy man. His iconic costume includes a tight-fitting jacket with matching trousers, often paired with a large black coat known as a *zimarra*.

Who is Pierrot, and what is notable about his appearance?

Pierrot is an unmasked character in Commedia dell'arte, often portrayed as a sad clown servant. While he does not wear a mask, he is known for heavy makeup and a distinctive white, flowy costume with large buttons.

What is the character Pulcinella known for, and what does he wear?

Pulcinella is a masked character in Commedia dell'arte who can be either a servant or a master. He is typically recognized by his baggy, white outfit.

Describe the character Sandrone and his costume.

Sandrone is an unmasked character in Commedia dell'arte, known as a cunning peasant. His costume includes a corduroy jacket and pants, along with red and white cross-striped socks.

Commedia Dell Arte Wiki: Echoes of Laughter: Unveiling the Legacy of Commedia dell'arte

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What is Commedia?

The Art of Professional Comedy

Commedia dell'arte, an early form of professional theatre, originated in Italy and flourished across Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries.^[5]^[6] It is distinguished by its use of masked "types"—standardized archetypal characters identifiable by their names, costumes, and comedic functions.^[6] This theatrical style was also known by various names, including commedia alla maschera, commedia improvviso, and commedia dell'arte all'improvviso, all emphasizing its masked and improvisational nature.^[6]

Improvisation and Lazzi

A hallmark of Commedia dell'arte was its reliance on improvised performances, built upon flexible scenarios or sketches.^[8]^[9] While key plot points and character entrances/exits were structured, actors were expected to invent new comedic bits, known as "gags," on the spot. A particularly distinctive feature was the lazzo—a pre-planned, often well-known, joke or "something foolish or witty" that performers could insert into the action.^[10]^[11] Pantomime was also a significant element, especially associated with characters like Arlecchino (Harlequin).^[12]

Archetypes and Actresses

The characters in Commedia dell'arte typically embodied fixed social types, such as naive old men, cunning servants, or boastful military officers.^[8]^[13] These were exaggerated "real characters" like the pedantic Il Dottore, the avaricious Pantalone, or the idealized Innamorati (lovers).^[7] Commedia was also groundbreaking for its inclusion of actresses, such as Isabella Andreini, who rose to prominence within these professional troupes.^[7] Performances often took place outdoors on temporary platforms or in public squares (piazzas), though court performances were also common.^[6]^[8]

Historical Trajectory

Ancient Roots and Early Emergence

While the precise origins of Commedia dell'arte are debated, some scholars trace formal similarities to ancient theatrical traditions, such as the Roman Atellan Farces, which featured crude, masked "types" and improvised plots.^[16]^[17] Others suggest links to medieval jongleurs and prototypes like Hellequin, a precursor to Harlequin.^[21] The first recorded performances of Commedia dell'arte date back to Rome as early as 1551.^[22] These were typically outdoor, professional performances, contrasting with the indoor, unmasked "learned comedies" (commedia erudita).^[24]

Evolution and Formalization

By the mid-16th century, distinct Commedia troupes began to form, with the Gelosi becoming a prominent company by 1568.^[7] The Gelosi adopted the two-faced Roman god Janus as their emblem, symbolizing their itinerant nature and the dual role of the actor.^[31] Their performances often featured a consistent ensemble, known as the "usual ten," comprising specific character types.^[25] The publication of scenarios by Flaminio Scala around the early 17th century further formalized the structure of Commedia dell'arte, ensuring its legacy.^[8]

The Rise of Actresses

A revolutionary aspect of Commedia dell'arte was the inclusion of women in female roles, documented as early as the 1560s. Figures like Lucrezia Di Siena, Vincenza Armani, and Barbara Flaminia are recognized as some of the first professional actresses in Europe since antiquity.^[26] This practice, however, faced opposition from English theatre critics and Italian prelates, who viewed actresses as "courtesans" whose performances could incite "carnal desires." Ferdinando Taviani's concept of negativa poetica describes the church's objections, offering insight into the social context of Commedia performances.^[27]

Decline and Enduring Legacy

By the early 17th century, Commedia began to shift from pure improvisation towards more delineated acts and characters, as evidenced by treatises from Cecchini, Barbieri, and Perrucci.^[28] Its popularity spread to France, influencing playwrights like Molière and leading to the development of new masks and characters within the Comédie-Italienne.^[29] The term "Commedia dell'arte" itself was coined in the mid-18th century.^[29] Despite its widespread influence, Napoleon outlawed Commedia dell'arte in Italy in 1797 to suppress its use as a partisan platform during Carnival, leading to its decline until a revival in Venice in 1979.^[30]

The Companies

Nomadic Ensembles

Commedia dell'arte was performed by "compagnie," or professional troupes of actors, each member typically specializing in a specific character or role.^[31] These actors came from diverse backgrounds, some joining without prior theatrical experience, drawn by the excitement of the stage. Troupes often collaborated or exchanged actors "on loan," fostering a dynamic and interconnected theatrical landscape.^[31] The nomadic nature of these companies, often driven by persecution from religious and civil authorities or rival theatre organizations, also served a strategic purpose: to continuously seek new, paying audiences and prevent their acts from becoming "stale."^[34]

Structure and Support

A typical Commedia troupe consisted of about ten performers, featuring a balanced mix of masked and unmasked character types, including women.^[25] Beyond the actors, companies employed a support staff including carpenters, props masters, servants, nurses, and prompters, all of whom traveled with the troupe.^[34] They transported their equipment in large carts, enabling them to set up performances in various locations, from public fairs and celebrations in wealthy towns to court theatres under the patronage of high-ranking officials.^[34]

Several prominent Commedia dell'arte troupes left a significant mark on theatrical history:

Compagnia dei Fedeli: Active from 1601 to 1652, notably featuring Giambattista Andreini.
Compagnia degli Accesi: Active from 1590 to 1628.
Compagnia degli Uniti: Active from 1578 to 1640.
Compagnia dei Confidenti: Active from 1574 to 1599, later reformed under Flaminio Scala (1611–1639).
I Dedosi: Active from 1581 to 1599.
I Gelosi: Active from 1568 to 1604, famous for actors like Isabella and Francesco Andreini.
Signora Violante and Her Troupe of Dancers: Active from 1729 to 1732.
Zan Ganassa: Active from 1568 to 1610, known for their musical talents.

Iconic Characters

Embodied Archetypes

The characters of Commedia dell'arte are not merely roles but embodied archetypes, each representing a specific Italian district or town and speaking in its distinct dialect.^[29] This regional specificity, combined with exaggerated features and distinct costumes, allowed for immediate audience recognition.^[29] The aesthetic of Commedia embraced exaggeration and distortion, reflecting the Mannerist period's artistic trends.^[37] Each character was designed to embody a specific mood—mockery, sadness, gaiety, or confusion—making the emotional landscape of the play immediately accessible.^[38]

The Four Pillars of Character

Commedia dell'arte characters are broadly categorized into four main groups:^[13]

Zanni: The servants or clowns, including figures like Arlecchino (Harlequin), Brighella, Scapino, Pulcinella, and Pedrolino.^[40]
Vecchi: The wealthy old men or masters, such as Pantalone and Il Dottore.
Innamorati: The young, upper-class lovers, often named Flavio and Isabella.
Il Capitano: The self-styled captains, known for their bravado, sometimes a female character called La Signora.

While "masks" (maschere) originally referred to characters who wore physical masks, the term eventually encompassed all Commedia characters, masked or not.^[41] Female characters, including servants and lovers (amorose), were typically unmasked but wore heavy makeup, while female characters in the "masters" group, like the Prima Donna, were also unmasked.

A concise overview of some prominent Commedia dell'arte characters:

Character(s)	Masked	Status / Traits	Typical Costume
Beltrame	Yes	Villager who pretends to be rich	Tunic and cape
Brighella	Yes	Smart and vindictive servant/middle-class	White smock and pants with green trim
Colombina	No	Perky maid / servant	Colorful (like Harlequin) or black and white
Gianduja	No	Honest peasant, loves wine and food	Brown suit and horn hat
Harlequin	Yes	Servant (sometimes to two masters)	Colorful tight-fitting jacket and trousers (diamond lozenges)
Il Capitano	Yes	Indigent loner, braggart	Military uniform (period-dependent)
Il Dottore	Yes	Head of the household, know-it-all	Black scholarly robe, large hat
Innamorati	No	High-class hopeless lovers	Nicely dressed, fashionable attire of the time
Pantalone	Yes	Older wealthy man, greedy	Dark capes and red trousers
Pierrot	No (heavy makeup)	Servant (Sad clown)	White, flowy costume with large buttons
Pulcinella	Yes	Servant or master	Baggy, white outfit
Sandrone	No	Cunning peasant	Corduroy jacket and pants, red and white cross-striped socks
Scaramouche	Yes, later removed	Braggart with villainous traits	Black Spanish dress
Tartaglia	Yes	Stuttering statesman	Large felt hat and enormous cloak

Distinctive Costumes

Harlequin's Evolving Attire

Each character in Commedia dell'arte possessed a unique costume, serving as an immediate visual cue for the audience. Harlequin's costume underwent significant evolution. Initially, he wore a tight-fitting jacket and trousers adorned with numerous oddly shaped patches, typically in green, yellow, red, and brown.^[44]^[45] A bat and a wallet often hung from his belt, and his soft cap might feature a rabbit or fox tail.^[45] By the 17th century, these patches transformed into symmetrical blue, red, and green triangles, culminating in the iconic diamond-shaped lozenges and a double-pointed hat in the 18th century.^[45]

Il Dottore and Il Capitano

Il Dottore's costume satirized the academic dress of Bolognese scholars, typically consisting of an entirely black ensemble.^[45] He wore a long black gown or jacket extending below the knees, often with a floor-length robe, black shoes, stockings, and breeches.^[45] A notable change in 1653, introduced by actor Augustin Lolli, included an enormous black hat and a flat ruff at the neck.^[45] Similarly, Il Capitano's costume was a satirical take on contemporary military wear, varying based on the character's region and the period depicted.^[44]

Other Character Styles

Pantalone's costume is one of the most recognizable, featuring a tight-fitting jacket and matching trousers, often paired with a large black coat called a zimarra.^[45] Female characters, whether servants or lovers (innamorati), generally wore less stylized costumes compared to their male counterparts. The innamorati, representing the upper class, would dress in the fashionable attire of the period. They typically did not wear masks but compensated with elaborate makeup to enhance their expressions.^[29] Female servants, on the other hand, were often distinguished by their bonnets and portrayed with a mischievous wit or gossipy demeanor.

Narrative & Performance

Conventional Plotlines

The conventional plotlines of Commedia dell'arte revolved around universal themes such as love, jealousy, sex, and old age.^[46] Many foundational elements can be traced back to Roman comedies by Plautus and Terence, or even earlier Greek comedies. However, it is more likely that the comici (performers) drew inspiration from contemporary novellas, traditional folk tales, and current events or local news, allowing for a dynamic and relevant theatrical experience. While predominantly comic, some scenarios explored mixed forms and even tragedies, demonstrating the genre's versatility.

Improvised Brilliance

Despite being largely unscripted in dialogue, performances were often based on detailed "scenarios" that provided a structural framework for the improvised action. The scenarios published by Flaminio Scala in the early 17th century are particularly well-known, showcasing the structured yet flexible nature of the form.^[8] Performers skillfully wove together well-rehearsed jokes and physical gags, known as lazzi, with on-the-spot improvised episodes and routines called burle (Italian for 'joke'), which often involved practical jokes.^[10] This improvisational freedom allowed for satire of local scandals and current events, with characters like Harlequin often commenting directly on contemporary issues.^[46]

The Classic Arc

The quintessential Commedia dell'arte plot typically features a pair of innamorati (lovers) who wish to marry but are thwarted by one or more vecchi (elders). The lovers then enlist the help of one or more Zanni (eccentric servants) to overcome these obstacles. The narrative usually culminates in a happy resolution, with the marriage of the innamorati and the forgiveness of any past transgressions.^[8] Song and dance were integral to performances, with many innamorati being skilled madrigalists, and instrumental music frequently accompanying the action.^[48]

Influence in Visual Art

Iconography and Depiction

The rich iconography of Commedia dell'arte has been a significant area of study for theatre scholars, revealing much about its performance style and cultural impact. Early artistic representations, particularly by painters at Fontainebleau, often depicted the innamorata or courtesan/actress with an erotic undertone.^[37] The influence of Flemish "wandering painters" (pittore vago) who integrated into Italian workshops was crucial in establishing Commedia dell'arte as a distinct genre within painting, a tradition that endured for centuries.

Artistic Interpretations

While many images and engravings of Commedia figures were studio creations rather than direct depictions of live performances, they nonetheless captured the essence of the characters. Jacques Callot's etchings of the Balli di Sfessania (1611), for instance, are considered capricci (fantastical compositions) rather than literal representations of Commedia dance forms.^[47] In the 18th century, Antoine Watteau's paintings frequently featured Commedia figures interacting with the aristocracy in lush garden settings. More recently, Pablo Picasso's 1921 painting Three Musicians offers a vibrant, cubist interpretation of Commedia-inspired characters, and he also designed the original costumes for Stravinsky's 1920 ballet Pulcinella, which depicted Commedia characters and situations.^[47] The enduring appeal of these characters is also evident in valuable porcelain figurines.

Enduring Influence

Theatre and Literature

The expressive nature of Commedia dell'arte profoundly influenced subsequent theatrical forms and literary works. Molière's comedies, for example, drew heavily from Commedia plots and masks, and the genre also contributed to the development of ballet d'action, expanding choreographic expression.^[48] Literary figures like William Shakespeare incorporated Commedia elements; his character Polonius in Hamlet is thought to be derived from Pantalone, and his clowns bear homage to the Zanni. Other notable playwrights influenced include Carlo Goldoni (The Servant of Two Masters), Pierre Beaumarchais (Figaro plays), and Carlo Gozzi (The Love for Three Oranges, Turandot). Even modern works, such as Steven Berkoff's adaptation of Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis, show Commedia's lasting impact.

Music and Dance

Music and dance were fundamental to Commedia dell'arte performances. Characters like Brighella were often depicted with guitars, and many illustrations show the innamorati singing. Performers were expected to be proficient in popular musical repertoires, including madrigals.^[48] This musical heritage extended into opera, with Commedia figures providing many stock characters for the opera buffa. Mozart's Don Giovanni, Leoncavallo's tragic melodrama Pagliacci, and Richard Strauss's Ariadne auf Naxos all feature characters or situations with clear Commedia precedents. In classical music, Robert Schumann's piano piece Carnaval explicitly incorporates characters from Commedia dell'arte, while Igor Stravinsky's ballets Petrushka and Pulcinella directly allude to the tradition.^[50]

Contemporary Resonances

The spirit of Commedia dell'arte continues to resonate in contemporary performance. Seasonal performances are still held in Denmark at the Peacock Stage of Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen and at Dyrehavsbakken, featuring characters like Pierrot and puppet versions of Pulcinella.^[51]^[52] The improvisational and character-driven nature of Commedia has also been linked to modern comedic forms. For instance, the characters created by English comedian Sacha Baron Cohen (e.g., Ali G, Borat, Bruno) have been discussed in relation to their potential Commedia origins, given Baron Cohen's training with French master clown Philippe Gaulier, whose students often engage with Commedia techniques.^[54]

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References

Commedia dell'arte at the EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica

Smith 1964, p. 26, quote: "Atellanae were forced marked by improvisations and masked personages...

A full list of references for this article are available at the Commedia dell'arte Wikipedia page

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Echoes of Laughter

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What is Commedia? ℹ️

🎭 The Art of Professional Comedy

✨ Improvisation and Lazzi

🌟 Archetypes and Actresses

Historical Trajectory 📜

🏛️ Ancient Roots and Early Emergence

📈 Evolution and Formalization

♀️ The Rise of Actresses

🌍 Decline and Enduring Legacy

The Companies 👥

itinerant Nomadic Ensembles

🎪 Structure and Support

Iconic Characters 🎭

archetype Embodied Archetypes

👥 The Four Pillars of Character

Distinctive Costumes 👗

💎 Harlequin's Evolving Attire

🎓 Il Dottore and Il Capitano

💃 Other Character Styles

Narrative & Performance 📝

❤️ Conventional Plotlines

🎤 Improvised Brilliance

💍 The Classic Arc

Influence in Visual Art 🎨

🖼️ Iconography and Depiction

🖌️ Artistic Interpretations

Enduring Influence 🌐

🎭 Theatre and Literature

🎶 Music and Dance

contemporain Contemporary Resonances

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is Commedia?

The Art of Professional Comedy

Improvisation and Lazzi

Archetypes and Actresses

Historical Trajectory

Ancient Roots and Early Emergence

Evolution and Formalization

The Rise of Actresses

Decline and Enduring Legacy

The Companies

Nomadic Ensembles

Structure and Support

Iconic Characters

Embodied Archetypes

The Four Pillars of Character

Distinctive Costumes

Harlequin's Evolving Attire

Il Dottore and Il Capitano

Other Character Styles

Narrative & Performance

Conventional Plotlines

Improvised Brilliance

The Classic Arc

Influence in Visual Art

Iconography and Depiction

Artistic Interpretations

Enduring Influence

Theatre and Literature

Music and Dance

Contemporary Resonances

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice