What do the abbreviations CE and BCE stand for, and what calendar systems do they refer to?

CE stands for Common Era, and BCE stands for Before the Common Era. These notations are used for the Gregorian or Julian calendar systems, which are the most widely adopted civil calendars in the world today.

How do CE/BCE notations relate to the traditional AD/BC notations?

The CE/BCE notations are exactly equivalent to the Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC) notations. For instance, '2025 CE' is the same year as 'AD 2025', and '400 BCE' is the same year as '400 BC'.

What is the primary reason for using BCE/CE instead of AD/BC?

The primary reason for using BCE/CE is to avoid the religious connotations associated with AD and BC, specifically by not referring to Jesus as 'Dominus' or 'Lord' in the dating system. This makes the calendar more inclusive for people of diverse religious backgrounds.

When did the expression 'Common Era' first appear in Latin?

The expression 'Common Era' can be traced back to 1615, when it first appeared in a book by Johannes Kepler as the Latin phrase *annus aerae nostrae vulgaris*, which translates to 'year of our common era'.

When was the term 'Vulgar Era' first used in English, and what did 'vulgar' mean in that context?

The term 'Vulgar Era' first appeared in English in 1635. In this historical context, 'vulgar' meant 'relating to the common people', without any derogatory associations, distinguishing it from dates used by royalty or government.

Which group of scholars began to use the term 'Common Era' more widely in the mid-19th century?

The term 'Common Era' became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish religious scholars, who sought a less religiously specific way to refer to the calendar era.

Who devised the principle for numbering years in the Christian ecclesiastical calendar, and around what year?

Around the year 525, the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus devised the principle for numbering years in the Christian ecclesiastical calendar. He set the epoch, or starting point, as the moment he believed to be the date of the incarnation of Jesus.

What was the original Latin label Dionysius Exiguus used for the new era he introduced?

Dionysius Exiguus labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as *Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi*, meaning 'the years of our Lord Jesus Christ'.

Why did Dionysius Exiguus replace the 'Era of the Martyrs' system?

Dionysius Exiguus replaced the 'Era of the Martyrs' system, which was then used for some Easter tables, because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.

How did Bede contribute to the widespread adoption of this year numbering system in Europe?

Bede, in England, contributed to the widespread adoption of this year numbering system in Europe by using it in 731. He also introduced the practice of dating years before 1 backwards, without a year zero, which is how we count years like 1 BCE, 2 BCE, and so on.

How did the term 'Vulgar Era' serve to distinguish the Anno Domini era?

The term 'Vulgar Era' was used to distinguish the years of the Anno Domini era, which was in popular use, from dates of the regnal year, which referred to the year of a sovereign's reign and was typically used in national law.

Who was Johannes Kepler, and what was his connection to the early use of the term 'Vulgar Era'?

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was a German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher, and writer on music. He is credited with the first known use of the Latin term *anno aerae nostrae vulgaris* (year of our common era) in a 1615 book, and he used similar Latin phrases in subsequent works.

When did the English phrase 'Common Era' first appear in print?

The English phrase 'Common Era' appears at least as early as 1708 in *The History of the Works of the Learned*.

How were 'Common Era', 'Christian Era', and 'Vulgar Era' used in an astronomy book from 1715?

In a 1715 astronomy book titled *The Elements of Astronomy, Physical and Geometrical*, the terms 'Common Era', 'Christian Era', and 'Vulgar Era' were used interchangeably, indicating their synonymous understanding at the time.

How did the *Encyclopædia Britannica* of 1797 refer to the terms 'vulgar era' and 'common era'?

The 1797 edition of the *Encyclopædia Britannica* used the terms 'vulgar era' and 'common era' synonymously, reflecting their interchangeable use in that period.

What did Alexander Campbell's 1835 book *Living Oracles* indicate about the usage of 'vulgar Era' and 'common era'?

In his 1835 book *Living Oracles*, Alexander Campbell used 'vulgar Era' and 'common era' as synonyms, stating, 'The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days' and referring to 'the common era' as a synonym for 'vulgar era'.

How was the phrase 'common era' used in a generic sense during the 19th century?

In the 19th century, the phrase 'common era' (in lower case) was also used in a generic sense to refer to any system of dates in everyday use throughout a civilization, such as 'the common era of the Jews', 'the common era of the Mahometans', or 'the common era of the foundation of Rome'.

What alternative abbreviation for AD was adopted by some followers of Aleister Crowley in the 20th century?

In the 20th century, some followers of Aleister Crowley adopted an adapted Latin translation of Common Era, *Era Vulgaris*, and used the abbreviation 'e.v.' or 'EV' as a replacement for AD.

How has the Jewish community historically used alternative dating notations for the Western calendar?

As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews to denote years in the Western calendar. As of 2005, Common Era notation had also been used for Hebrew lessons for over a century, and Jews have also used the term Current Era.

What is the current trend regarding the use of BCE/CE notation among academics?

Some academics in fields like theology, education, archaeology, and history have adopted CE and BCE notation, although there is some disagreement. A 2014 study found that the BCE/CE notation is not growing at the expense of BC and AD in scholarly literature, with both notations being used in a relatively stable fashion.

What was the outcome of the proposed change to BCE/CE in Australian school textbooks in 2011?

In 2011, media reports suggested that BC/AD notation in Australian school textbooks would be replaced by BCE/CE. However, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority denied these rumors, stating that BC/AD would remain, with CE and BCE offered as an optional learning activity.

How did the Canadian Museum of Civilization (now History) adjust its dating notation policy in 2013?

In 2013, the Canadian Museum of Civilization (now the Canadian Museum of History), which had previously switched to BCE/CE, decided to revert to BC/AD in materials intended for the public, while continuing to use BCE/CE in academic content.

Why is the CE notation particularly common in Nepal?

The CE notation is particularly common in Nepal to disambiguate dates from the local Indian or Hindu calendar, Bikram or Vikram Sambat, because the era of the Hindu calendar is quite close to the Common Era.

What was the recommendation of a UK advisory panel in 2002 regarding dating in schools?

In 2002, an advisory panel for the religious education syllabus for England and Wales recommended introducing BCE/CE dates to schools, and by 2018, some local education authorities were indeed using them.

What is the National Trust's policy on dating notation in the United Kingdom?

In 2018, the National Trust stated it would continue to use BC/AD as its house style for dating, indicating a preference for traditional notation.

What is English Heritage's rationale for using BC/AD for British prehistory?

English Heritage explains its policy by stating that while it might seem unusual to use a Christian calendar system for British prehistory, the BC/AD labels are widely used and understood by the public.

What is the BBC News style guide's current stance on CE/BCE versus AD/BC?

As of October 2019, the BBC News style guide has entries for AD and BC, but not for CE or BCE, indicating a preference for the traditional notations in its news reporting.

What does *The Guardian*'s style guide say about the use of CE/BCE?

*The Guardian*'s style guide acknowledges that some people prefer CE and BCE, but states that AD and BC remain their preferred style for publications.

What was reported in 2005 regarding the use of BCE/CE notation in US textbooks?

In 2005, it was reported that the use of BCE/CE notation in textbooks in the United States was growing, indicating a shift in educational materials.

Which major almanac switched to BCE/CE notation in 2007?

The 2007 *World Almanac* was the first edition to switch to BCE/CE, ending a period of 138 years during which it had used the traditional BC/AD dating notation.

What is the College Board's policy on dating notation in its history tests?

The College Board, which administers standardized tests for college admissions in the United States, uses BCE/CE notation in its history tests.

How does the History Channel use BCE/CE notation?

The US-based History Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles that pertain to non-Christian religious topics, such as Jerusalem and Judaism, to maintain religious neutrality in those specific contexts.

What is the Society of Biblical Literature's preference for dating in academic texts on religion?

The Society of Biblical Literature's style guide for academic texts on religion prefers the use of BCE/CE over BC/AD, aligning with a broader academic trend towards inclusive language.

What was the Kentucky State School Board's final decision on using BCE and CE in its Program of Studies in 2006?

In June 2006, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its earlier decision to mandate the use of BCE and CE in the state's new Program of Studies, instead leaving the education of students about these concepts to local discretion.

What is a key argument in support of using CE/BCE notation, particularly from a religious perspective?

A key argument in support of CE/BCE notation is that it shows sensitivity to non-Christians by avoiding the implicit 'Our Lord' in the abbreviation AD, which directly refers to Jesus as Lord. This promotes a more inclusive approach to dating.

What argument did former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan make in favor of the 'Common Era'?

Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan argued that the Christian calendar has become a 'Common Era' because people of all faiths use it as a matter of convenience, making a shared way of reckoning time a necessity due to global interaction.

According to Joshua J. Mark, why did non-Christian scholars embrace the CE/BCE dating system?

Joshua J. Mark stated that non-Christian scholars, including Jewish, Islamic, Hindu, and Buddhist scholars, embraced CE and BCE because it allowed them to communicate more easily with the Christian community and refer to events using the Gregorian Calendar without compromising their own beliefs about the divinity of Jesus of Nazareth.

What is a central criticism against the use of BCE/CE notation?

A central criticism against BCE/CE notation is that it maintains the same epoch, or starting point, which is chosen to be close to the date of birth of Jesus. Critics argue that since the year numbers are identical, BCE and CE dates should be considered equally offensive to other religions as BC and AD, as the underlying Christian basis remains.

How did Roman Catholic priest Raimon Panikkar view the use of 'Common Era'?

Roman Catholic priest and writer Raimon Panikkar argued that the BCE/CE usage is a less inclusive option, considering it 'the acme of colonialism' because it still uses Christian calendar numbers and imposes them on other nations.

What 'slippery slope' scenario did Kenneth G. Wilson speculate regarding the abandonment of the AD/BC convention?

In 1993, English-language expert Kenneth G. Wilson speculated that if the AD/BC convention were cast aside, some would likely argue for casting aside the conventional numbering system itself, given its Christian basis, leading to further changes in dating practices.

What is a common concern among some Christians regarding the use of BCE/CE?

A common concern among some Christians is that the removal of the explicit reference to Jesus in the dating system (from 'Anno Domini' to 'Common Era') is offensive, as it diminishes the religious significance of the calendar's origin.

What are the standard placement rules for BCE and CE abbreviations relative to the year number?

The abbreviation BCE, like BC, always follows the year number (e.g., 399 BCE). Unlike AD, which can precede or follow the year, CE always follows the year number (e.g., 2025 CE), if the context requires it to be written at all.

How are BCE and CE abbreviations sometimes formatted?

The abbreviations BCE and CE are sometimes written with small capital letters (e.g., BCE or CE) or with periods (e.g., B.C.E. or C.E.).

What was the historical use of 'common era' terminology among Jews in Germany?

In Germany, Jews in Berlin were using words translating to 'before the common era' in the 18th century. This formulation, such as *vor der gewöhnlichen Zeitrechnung* (before the common chronology), persisted among German Jews in the 19th century.

What ironic situation arose in Nazi Germany regarding the 'common era' convention?

In 1938 Nazi Germany, the National Socialist Teachers League prescribed the use of the 'common era' convention. *Time* magazine found this ironic, noting that 'Aryans' were following a Jewish example nearly 200 years later, as German Jews had been using this convention since the 18th century.

What are the Spanish language equivalents for 'BC' and 'AD', and for 'BCE' and 'CE'?

In Spanish, common forms for 'BC' are *a. C.* and *a. de C.* (for *antes de Cristo*, 'before Christ'). The Real Academia Española also acknowledges *a. n. e.* (*antes de nuestra era*, 'before our era') and *d. n. e.* (*después de nuestra era*, 'after our era'). In scholarly writing, *a. e. c.* (*antes de la era común*, 'Before the Common Era') is used as the equivalent of 'BCE'.

What are the Welsh language equivalents for AD/CE and BC?

In Welsh, OC can be expanded to equivalents of both AD (*Oed Crist*, 'Age of Christ') and CE (*Oes Cyffredin*, 'Common Era'). For dates before the Common Era, CC (*Cyn Crist*, 'Before Christ') is used exclusively.

How are 'before our era' and 'of our era' expressed in Russian, and when did their use become widespread?

In Russian, *do n.e.* (*до н.э.*, lit. 'before our era') and *n.e.* (*н.э.*, lit. 'of our era') are used almost universally since the October Revolution in 1917. Within Christian churches, *do R.Kh./ot R.Kh.* (before/after the birth of Christ) remains in use.

What are the Polish equivalents for 'before our era' and 'of our era', and where are they commonly used?

In Polish, 'p.n.e.' (*przed naszą erą*, lit. 'before our era') and 'n.e.' (*naszej ery*, lit. 'of our era') are commonly used in historical and scientific literature. Traditional terms like *Przed Chrystusem* (before Christ) and *po Chrystusie* (after Christ) are used sporadically, mostly in religious publications.

How did China adopt 'Common Era' terminology for dating?

Upon the foundation of the Republic of China, *xī yuán* (Western Era) was used for international purposes. In 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted *gōngyuán* (Common Era) for both internal and external affairs in mainland China, with BCE translated as *gōngyuánqián* (Before the Common Era).

What are the Czech language terms for 'of our year count' and 'before our year count', and how are they used?

In Czech, 'n. l.' (*našeho letopočtu*, 'of our year count') and 'př. n. l.' or 'před n. l.' (*před naším letopočtem*, 'before our year count') are used, always placed after the year number. The direct translations of AD (*léta Páně*) or BC (*před Kristem*) are considered archaic.

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What Is CE/BCE?

Equivalent Notations

The terms Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are modern year notations that are precisely equivalent to the traditional Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC) systems, respectively.^[1] For instance, the year 2025 CE is identical to AD 2025, and 400 BCE corresponds to 400 BC.^[2] This equivalence ensures continuity in historical dating while offering an alternative nomenclature.

A Universal Standard

These notations are integral to the Gregorian and Julian calendars, which are widely adopted globally for civil purposes. The primary motivation behind the increasing use of BCE/CE is to provide a dating system that avoids explicit religious connotations, particularly the reference to Jesus as "Dominus" (Lord) inherent in "Anno Domini."^[3]^[4]^[5] This makes the system more inclusive for diverse cultural and religious contexts.

Historical Evolution

Early Chronological Foundations

The foundational principle for numbering years from what is believed to be the date of Jesus' incarnation was devised around 525 CE by the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus.^[10] He labeled this new era "Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi" (the years of our Lord Jesus Christ), replacing the "Era of the Martyrs" to avoid commemorating persecutors of Christians.^[10] This system gained wider acceptance in Europe, notably through Bede's work in England in 731 CE, who also established the practice of dating years backward before 1 CE without a year zero.^[15]

The "Vulgar Era"

The expression "Vulgar Era" emerged to distinguish the widely used Anno Domini era from the regnal year system, which was common in national law.^[14] The term 'vulgar' here signifies "of the ordinary people," devoid of any derogatory meaning.^[15] Its earliest known appearance in Latin, as "annus aerae nostrae vulgaris" (year of our common era), dates back to Johannes Kepler's work in 1615.^[7] An English translation in 1635 may mark its first use in English.^[18]

Rise of "Common Era"

The phrase "Common Era" in English can be traced to 1708^[9] and gained significant traction among Jewish religious scholars by the mid-19th century.^[9] This shift reflected a desire for a more universally acceptable terminology. By the early 20th century, the "Catholic Encyclopedia" noted that "Christian, Vulgar, and Common Era" were all commonly understood terms, indicating a growing acceptance of alternative nomenclature.^[32]

c. 525 CE: Dionysius Exiguus devises the Anno Domini system.
731 CE: Bede popularizes the AD system and introduces BC dating.
1615 CE: Johannes Kepler uses "annus aerae nostrae vulgaris" (year of our common era) in Latin.
1635 CE: "Vulgar Era" appears in English, likely in an edition of Kepler's work.
1708 CE: "Common Era" first appears in English.
Mid-19th Century: "Common Era" becomes more widely used by Jewish scholars.
1825 CE: Abbreviation "VE" (Vulgar Era) used by Jews for Western calendar years.

Contemporary Usage

Academic Adoption

Academics across various disciplines, including theology, education, archaeology, and history, have increasingly adopted CE and BCE notations.^[47] While some disagreement persists, a 2014 study indicated that both BCE/CE and BC/AD notations maintain relatively stable usage in scholarly literature, suggesting a co-existence rather than a complete replacement.^[48]

Global and Regional Trends

The adoption of CE/BCE varies significantly across different regions and institutions:

Australia: Despite initial media reports in 2011 suggesting a full transition, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority clarified that BC/AD would remain, with CE/BCE as an optional learning activity.^[49]^[50]
Canada: The Canadian Museum of Civilization (now Canadian Museum of History) reverted to BC/AD for public materials in 2013, while retaining BCE/CE for academic content.^[51]
Nepal: BCE/CE is commonly used to differentiate dates from local calendars like Bikram Sambat, whose era is numerically close to the Common Era.^[52]

UK and US Practices

In the United Kingdom, an advisory panel recommended introducing BCE/CE in religious education in 2002, with some local authorities adopting it by 2018.^[52] However, institutions like the National Trust and English Heritage maintain BC/AD as their house style.^[53]^[54] In the United States, BCE/CE usage in textbooks was noted to be growing in 2005.^[45] The "World Almanac" switched to BCE/CE in 2007, and the College Board, History Channel (for non-Christian topics), and Society of Biblical Literature prefer it.^[57]^[58]^[60]

Rationales & Debates

Arguments for Adoption

Proponents argue that BCE/CE fosters inclusivity and religious neutrality. The explicit reference to "Our Lord" in AD is seen as problematic for non-Christians, particularly in Jewish scholarship where avoiding such theological claims is historically significant.^[64]^[65] Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan emphasized the practical necessity of a shared, non-denominational time-reckoning system for global interaction.^[68] Scholars like Joshua J. Mark highlight how BCE/CE facilitates easier communication among diverse academic communities without compromising individual religious beliefs.^[71]

Criticisms and Opposition

Critics contend that since the epoch (the starting point) of both systems remains tied to the birth of Jesus, BCE/CE offers no true religious neutrality and can still be perceived as imposing a Christian-centric calendar.^[72] Roman Catholic priest Raimon Panikkar described the "Common Era" as "the acme of colonialism" for this reason.^[73] Some Christians are also offended by the removal of the direct reference to Jesus.^[75] Furthermore, English-language expert Kenneth G. Wilson warned of a "slippery slope" where questioning the AD/BC convention might lead to questioning the entire numbering system itself due to its Christian origins.^[74]

Stylistic Conventions

Placement and Punctuation

A key stylistic convention for BCE and CE is their placement: both abbreviations consistently follow the year number. This contrasts with AD, which traditionally precedes the year number (e.g., AD 2025), though it can also follow. For example, the current year is 2025 CE, and the year Socrates died is 399 BCE.^[76] These abbreviations are often written in full capital letters (CE, BCE), but small capital letters or with periods (C.E., B.C.E.) are also accepted variations in some style guides.^[77]

Global Linguistic Variants

Diverse Adaptations

The concept of a "Common Era" or "Our Era" has been adopted and translated into various languages, reflecting a global need for a shared, secular dating system:

German: Jewish communities in Berlin used terms translating to "(before the) common era" as early as the 18th century, such as "vor der gewöhnlichen Zeitrechnung" (before the common chronology).^[78]
Spanish: Common forms include "a. n. e." (antes de nuestra era, 'before our era') and "d. n. e." (después de nuestra era, 'after our era'). "a. e. c." (antes de la era común) is the scholarly equivalent of BCE.^[82]
Russian: Since the October Revolution (1917), "до н.э." (do n.e., 'before our era') and "н.э." (n.e., 'of our era') are almost universally used, replacing older Christian terms.^[83]
Chinese: Mainland China adopted "公元" (gōngyuán, "Common Era") in 1949 for both internal and external affairs, with "公元前" (gōngyuánqián, "Before the Common Era") for BCE.^[86]

Welsh: "OC" can mean "Oed Crist" (AD) or "Oes Cyffredin" (CE), while "CC" (Cyn Crist) is used for BC.
Polish: "p.n.e." (przed naszą erą, 'before our era') and "n.e." (naszej ery, 'of our era') are standard in academic contexts.^[84]
Czech: "n. l." (našeho letopočtu, 'of our year count') and "př. n. l." (před naším letopočtem, 'before our year count') are common, with older Christian terms considered archaic.^[87]
Croatian: "pr. n. e." (prije nove ere, 'before new era') and "n. e." (nove ere, 'of the new era') have been introduced alongside traditional "pr. Kr." (prije Krista, 'before Christ').^[88]^[89]
Danish: "f.v.t." (før vor tidsregning, 'before our time reckoning') and "e.v.t." (efter vor tidsregning, 'after our time reckoning') are used, similar to BCE/CE.^[90]
Estonian: "e.m.a." (enne meie ajaarvamist, 'before our time reckoning') and "m.a.j." (meie ajaarvamise järgi, 'according to our time reckoning') are used for BCE and CE, respectively.^[92]
Finnish: "eaa." (ennen ajanlaskun alkua, 'before time reckoning') and "jaa." (jälkeen ajanlaskun alun, 'after the start of time reckoning') are used for BCE and CE.^[93]

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Chronos Unveiled

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What Is CE/BCE? 📜

🔄 Equivalent Notations

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Historical Evolution 🏛️

⏳ Early Chronological Foundations

📚 The "Vulgar Era"

📈 Rise of "Common Era"

Contemporary Usage 🌐

🎓 Academic Adoption

🗺️ Global and Regional Trends

🇬🇧🇺🇸 UK and US Practices

Rationales & Debates ⚖️

🤝 Arguments for Adoption

🚧 Criticisms and Opposition

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What Is CE/BCE?

Equivalent Notations

A Universal Standard

Historical Evolution

Early Chronological Foundations

The "Vulgar Era"

Rise of "Common Era"

Contemporary Usage

Academic Adoption

Global and Regional Trends

UK and US Practices

Rationales & Debates

Arguments for Adoption

Criticisms and Opposition

Stylistic Conventions

Placement and Punctuation

Global Linguistic Variants

Diverse Adaptations

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

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Discover other topics to study!

References

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