What were Condottieri, and during which historical periods were they most active?

Condottieri were Italian military leaders who commanded mercenary companies during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The term originally derived from the Italian word 'condotta,' meaning the contract under which these mercenaries served a city-state or lord. Over time, 'condottiero' evolved in Italian usage to mean any military commander or leader.

How did the term 'Condottiero' originate and what did it initially signify?

The term 'Condottiero' originated from the Italian word 'condotta,' which referred to the contract outlining the terms of service for mercenary soldiers. Therefore, a 'condottiero' was initially a 'contractor' or commander of mercenary troops hired through such a contract.

Why did wealthy Italian city-states like Venice, Florence, and Genoa rely on hiring mercenaries?

In the 13th and 14th centuries, these Italian city-states were rich from trade but possessed relatively small armies. To defend themselves against foreign powers and rival neighbors, the ruling nobles hired mercenary companies, led by condottieri, to fight for them.

What were the origins of the first mercenary bands in Italy following the Crusades?

After the conclusion of the Crusades in the late 13th century, European soldiers gained significant large-scale warfare experience. Some of these soldiers, particularly Flemings (known as Brabanzoni) and Spanish soldiers who had followed King Peter III of Aragon, remained in Italy and formed the first bands of roving soldiers, known as 'masnade,' seeking military employment.

Who were the Brabanzoni and the Spanish soldiers mentioned in the context of early mercenary bands?

The Brabanzoni were mercenary bands primarily composed of Flemings from the Duchy of Brabant. The Spanish soldiers were those who had served under King Peter III of Aragon during the War of the Sicilian Vespers and subsequently stayed in Italy to find military employment.

What was significant about Werner von Urslingen and Konrad von Landau's Ventura Companies?

The Ventura Companies, led by Duke Werner von Urslingen and Count Konrad von Landau, were among the first well-organized mercenary groups in Italy. Notably, Werner's company established a code of military justice that imposed discipline and ensured an equal division of income from their contracts, distinguishing them from other mercenary bands.

How did Werner von Urslingen's company, the Great Company, differ from other mercenary groups?

The Great Company, which grew from Werner von Urslingen's initial group, was distinguished by its imposed code of military justice that enforced discipline. It also operated with a more structured division of contract income among its members, and it grew to a formidable size of around 3,000 men.

What marked the emergence of the first Italian-led mercenary company?

The first mercenary company with an Italian leader was the 'Company of St. George,' formed in 1339 and led by Lodrisio Visconti. However, this company was defeated and destroyed later that same year by Luchino Visconti of Milan.

Who formed the second 'Company of St. George' in 1377, and what was its historical importance?

The second 'Company of St. George' was formed in 1377 under the Italian leadership of Alberico da Barbiano. This company became significant as Alberico da Barbiano later taught military science to future renowned condottieri such as Braccio da Montone and Muzio Sforza.

How did the approach to warfare by condottieri differ from the medieval concept of chivalry?

Condottieri approached warfare from the perspective of military science, emphasizing strategy and tactics to outmaneuver opponents and undermine their ability to fight, rather than relying on valor or risking fortune in direct, potentially bloody, battlefield combat as was common in chivalry. They also tended to avoid unnecessary risks like hard work or winter campaigns, which could deplete their trained soldiers.

What military texts influenced the strategic thinking of condottieri?

Many condottieri were educated men familiar with classical military texts, such as Vegetius's 'Epitoma rei militarii' (On Military Matters), which influenced their systematic approach to warfare.

According to Niccolò Machiavelli, how did condottieri typically engage in battles with each other?

Niccolò Machiavelli observed that condottieri often fought each other in battles that were grandiose in appearance but frequently pointless and near-bloodless, suggesting a preference for strategic maneuvering over direct confrontation.

What factors contributed to the eventual decline of the condottieri in the later Renaissance?

In the later Renaissance, condottieri often continued to employ medieval weapons and tactics, including the armored knight, even as other European powers began adopting professional standing armies equipped with pikemen and musketeers. This shift in military technology and organization contributed to the decline and eventual destruction of many condottieri companies.

Who led the White Company into Italy after the Peace of Bretigny, and what role did they play?

Sir John Hawkwood led an army of English mercenaries, known as the White Company, into Italy following the Peace of Bretigny in 1360. This company played a prominent role in the complex wars of the subsequent thirty years.

How did the organization of mercenary armies evolve in Italy towards the end of the 14th century?

Towards the end of the 14th century, mercenary armies began to become more semi-national, incorporating a larger proportion of Italian soldiers. This marked a transition away from purely mercenary companies towards armies that were more integrated with the states they served, eventually leading to the national standing army system.

What was the 'lancia' formation that replaced the 'barbuta' in mercenary armies?

The 'lancia' was a tactical unit that replaced the older 'barbuta.' A 'lancia' typically comprised three soldiers: a mounted 'capo-lancia' (lance leader), a groom, and a boy. Five 'lance' units formed a 'posta,' and five 'poste' formed a 'bandiera' (flag).

Who were typically the condottieri from the 15th century onwards?

From the 15th century onward, many condottieri were landless Italian nobles who chose the profession of arms as their livelihood. Additionally, princes and lords also served as condottieri, often to increase their wealth and influence.

Who is famously known as 'The Last Condottiere,' and who was his son?

Giovanni dalle Bande Nere, the son of Caterina Sforza from Forlì, is known as 'The Last Condottiere.' His son was Cosimo I de' Medici, who later became the Grand Duke of Tuscany.

Which famous Italian rulers served as condottieri?

Notable rulers who served as condottieri included Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, the Lord of Rimini, and Federico da Montefeltro, the Duke of Urbino. Their involvement brought significant income to their estates.

What were the approximate monthly earnings for some condottieri captains and their soldiers in the 15th century?

Earnings varied significantly. For instance, Micheletto Attendolo received 1,900 monthly florins in 1432. In 1448, William VIII of Montferrat received 6,600 monthly florins from Francesco Sforza, with enlisted soldiers earning half that amount. Francesco II Gonzaga was contracted for 33,000 yearly scudi for 250 men in 1505, while Francesco Maria I della Rovere received 100,000 yearly scudi for 200 men in the same year.

How did condottieri manage their contracts and service periods?

Condottieri companies selected soldiers for enlistment, and the 'condotta' was a formal contract. When the service period, known as the 'ferma,' concluded, the company would enter a 'wait' period ('aspetto') while the employer considered renewing the contract. If the contract expired definitively, the condottiere was prohibited from declaring war against that employer for two years, a rule respected due to the importance of professional reputation.

Why was professional reputation so critical for condottieri?

Professional reputation, or business credibility, was paramount for condottieri. Deceiving an employer would ruin their reputation, making it difficult to secure future contracts. This principle also applied to naval mercenaries operating under 'contratto d'assento'.

Which major Italian maritime republic notably avoided hiring naval mercenaries?

The Republic of Venice considered it humiliating to hire naval mercenaries and therefore did not employ them, even during periods of significant danger to the city.

What did Machiavelli observe about the military capabilities of Italy's principal states during the 15th century?

Machiavelli noted that none of the principal Italian states possessed their own fully equipped forces. Instead, military power was held by lesser princes seeking property or safety, or by professional soldiers who knew no other art than war and pursued it for profit or honor.

What significant military event occurred at Calliano in 1487?

In 1487, at the Battle of Calliano, the Venetians successfully engaged and defeated German landsknechte and Swiss infantry, who were considered the best soldiers in Europe at that time.

What event in 1494 initiated the Italian Wars, and who invaded Italy?

The invasion of the Italian Peninsula by the French king Charles VIII in 1494 marked the beginning of the Italian Wars. Many renowned condottieri participated in these conflicts.

What modern military unit is considered a remnant of the condottieri tradition?

The Swiss Guard of the Vatican is considered a modern remnant of a historically effective mercenary army, reflecting the enduring practice of hiring foreign mercenaries.

How did the meaning of the term 'condottiere' evolve over time?

While the specific military service contract ('condotta') faded, the term 'condottiere' persisted. It came to denote great Italian generals fighting for European states, monarchs, and Popes, eventually becoming synonymous with 'military leader' or 'commander' in Italian usage.

Can you name three prominent condottieri from the 14th century mentioned in the text?

Three prominent condottieri from the 14th century mentioned are Werner von Urslingen, Konrad von Landau, and John Hawkwood (also known as Giovanni Acuto).

Which battle in 1339 involved the defeat of Lodrisio Visconti's 'Company of St. George'?

The Battle of Parabiago in 1339 saw Luchino Visconti of Milan defeat Lodrisio Visconti's 'Company of St. George' near Lombardy.

What was the Cesena Bloodbath in 1377, and who was involved?

The Cesena Bloodbath occurred during the War of the Eight Saints in 1377, where Papal and Breton mercenaries under John Hawkwood slaughtered over 2,000 citizens of Cesena.

Who fought in the Battle of Castagnaro in 1387?

In the Battle of Castagnaro (1387), Giovanni Ordelaffi fought for Verona against John Hawkwood, who was fighting for Padova.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Sant'Egidio in 1416?

In the Battle of Sant'Egidio (1416), Braccio da Montone, fighting for himself, defeated Carlo I Malatesta, who was fighting for Perugia.

Which condottiero led Venice against Milan in the Battle of Maclodio in 1427?

The Count of Carmagnola (Francesco Bussone da Carmagnola) led Venice against Milan in the Battle of Maclodio in 1427.

Who participated in the Battle of Anghiari in 1440?

The Battle of Anghiari in 1440 involved Niccolò Piccinino fighting for Milan against a coalition of Florence, the Papal States, and Venice, led by Micheletto Attendolo.

What was the significance of the Battle of Agnadello in 1509?

In the Battle of Agnadello (1509), Bartolomeo d'Alviano, fighting for Venice, achieved a victory against the combined forces of France and the Italian League.

Who were the main combatants in the Battle of Marciano in 1554?

The Battle of Marciano in 1554 saw Gian Giacomo Medici fighting for Florence and the Holy Roman Empire against Piero Strozzi, who represented Siena and France.

What were the Wars of Castro, and who were the primary adversaries?

The Wars of Castro, which took place from 1641 to 1649, were conflicts between Pope Urban VIII and his successor Pope Innocent X against the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza.

Describe the fresco mentioned in the article's first image.

The first image features a Renaissance-era fresco depicting a condottiero and his troops, with the fashion influenced by Landsknecht mercenaries.

What historical event is illustrated by the image of Luchino Visconti?

The image of Luchino Visconti relates to his victory over Werner von Urslingen's 'Company of Saint George' at the Battle of Parabiago in Lombardy in 1339.

What military achievement is associated with Alberico da Barbiano in the provided image caption?

The caption associated with Alberico da Barbiano notes that he founded an all-Italian 'condotta,' the 'Company of St. George,' and achieved acclaim by defeating the Breton company of anti-pope Clement VII at Marino in 1379.

What does the portrait by Ermanno Stroiffi represent?

The portrait by Ermanno Stroiffi is titled 'Portrait of a condottiero,' offering a visual representation of such a military leader.

Who is depicted in the Bellini painting, and in which battle did he participate?

The painting by Giovanni Bellini depicts Bartolomeo d'Alviano, one of the condottieri who took part in the Battle of Garigliano in 1503.

What victory is attributed to Bartolomeo Colleoni, as shown in his portrait?

The portrait of Bartolomeo Colleoni indicates that he defeated the French at the Battle of Bosco Marengo in 1447.

What does the Velázquez painting featuring Ambrogio Spinola represent?

The painting by Velázquez depicts Ambrogio Spinola, who is presented as one of the last notable figures embodying the tradition of the condottieri.

What does the painting by Andrea del Castagno reveal about 15th-century condottieri attire?

The painting by Andrea del Castagno, depicting Farinata degli Uberti, showcases the typical attire worn by a 15th-century condottiero.

What is the purpose of the 'Authority control' section at the end of the article?

The 'Authority control' section provides links to various international and national databases (like GND, BnF, Library of Congress) where further information and catalog records about 'Condottieri' can be found, helping to organize and verify information across different systems.

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Defining the Condottiero

Mercenary Commanders

The term Condottieri (singular: condottiero or condottiere) refers to Italian military leaders prominent during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. Initially, it specifically denoted commanders of mercenary companies, deriving from the Italian word condotta, which signified the contract under which they served a city-state or lord. Thus, a condottiero was fundamentally a 'contractor' of military services. Over time, the term evolved in Italian usage to encompass any 'commander' or 'military leader'.

The Contractual Basis

The core of the condottiero's role was the condotta, a formal contract outlining the terms of military service. This agreement stipulated the duration, pay, and expected duties between the mercenary captain and the employing entity, typically a wealthy Italian city-state such as Venice, Florence, or Genoa. This contractual framework distinguished them from feudal levies or purely volunteer forces.

Historical Context and Origins

Wealthy City-States and Small Armies

During the 13th and 14th centuries, Italian city-states amassed considerable wealth through extensive trade networks, particularly with the Levant. However, these prosperous entities possessed relatively small standing armies. To defend their territories and interests against foreign powers and rivals, they frequently resorted to hiring foreign mercenaries.

Crusades and Early Bands

Experience gained during the European Crusades (1095–1291) provided a pool of soldiers and commanders familiar with large-scale warfare. Upon the conclusion of the Crusades, the first mercenary bands, known as masnade, began to appear in Italy. Initially, these were often foreign groups, including Flemings (dubbed Brabanzoni) and Aragonese soldiers. By the 14th century, organized mercenary companies, such as the Ventura Companies led by Werner von Urslingen and Konrad von Landau, became a significant military force.

The Rise of Italian Leadership

Italian Captains Emerge

The formation of the first well-organized mercenary company led by an Italian, Lodrisio Visconti's "Company of St. George" in 1339, marked a turning point. Although initially defeated, this signaled a shift towards Italian command. Later, Alberico da Barbiano formed a second "Company of St. George" in 1377, becoming a pivotal figure who trained future renowned condottieri like Braccio da Montone and Muzio Attendolo Sforza.

Warfare as Military Science

As condottieri gained influence and political power, they began to view warfare not merely as a matter of valor or courage, but through the lens of military science. Drawing upon classical texts like Vegetius's Epitoma rei militarii, they developed sophisticated strategies and tactics focused on outmaneuvering opponents and preserving their forces, rather than engaging in direct, high-risk battlefield combat. This pragmatic approach contrasted sharply with the traditional medieval ideals of chivalry.

Strategic Acumen and Tactics

Outmaneuvering the Enemy

The condottieri prioritized strategic objectives and the preservation of their valuable military assets. They often sought to achieve victory through calculated maneuvers, sieges, and attrition, rather than direct confrontation. This emphasis on efficiency meant avoiding unnecessary risks, such as arduous winter campaigns or battles where the outcome was uncertain.

Avoiding Direct Engagement

This strategic preference led to battles that were sometimes characterized by elaborate maneuvering but limited direct combat, as noted by Niccolò Machiavelli. The primary goal was to degrade the enemy's capacity to wage war, thereby achieving political or economic aims with minimal loss of trained soldiers, who represented a significant capital investment for the condottiero.

Evolution of the Term and Role

From Contractor to Commander

While the practice of formal condotta contracts gradually declined with the rise of professional standing armies in Europe, the term condottiero persisted. It evolved to denote esteemed Italian generals who served various European states, monarchs, and the Papacy, particularly during the Italian Wars and subsequent conflicts. Figures like the Marquis of Pescara, Ambrogio Spinola, and Raimondo Montecuccoli exemplify this later usage, where 'condottiero' became virtually synonymous with 'military leader' or 'commander'.

Enduring Influence

The legacy of the condottieri lies not only in their military prowess but also in their contribution to the professionalization of warfare. Their emphasis on strategy, logistics, and the contractual basis of military service laid groundwork for modern military organization. Even the Vatican's Swiss Guard represents a modern continuation of the mercenary tradition.

Notable Condottieri

Prominent Figures

The history of Italian warfare is marked by numerous influential mercenary captains. Their careers often spanned decades, involving complex political maneuvering and significant military campaigns across the Italian peninsula and beyond.

Roger de Flor (c. 1268–1305)
Malatesta da Verucchio (1212–1312)
Castruccio Castracani (1281–1328)
Cangrande della Scala (1291–1329)
Montréal d'Albarno (c. 1315–1354)
Walter VI of Brienne (c. 1304–1356)
Konrad von Landau (died 1363)
Albert Sterz (executed 1366)
John Hawkwood (Giovanni Acuto, c. 1320–1394)
Giovanni Ordelaffi (1355–1399)
Astorre I Manfredi (1345–1405)
Alberico da Barbiano (1344–1409)
Johann II (Habsburg-Laufenburg) (c. 1330–1380)
Facino Cane de Casale (c. 1360–1412)
Angelo Broglio da Lavello (Tartaglia) (1350 or 1370–1421)
Andrea Fortebracci (Braccio da Montone) (1368–1424)
Muzio Attendolo (Sforza) (1369–1424)
Francesco Bussone da Carmagnola (1390–1432)
Giovanni Vitelleschi (died 1440)
Erasmo da Narni (Gattamelata) (1370–1443)
Niccolò Piccinino (1380–1444)
Micheletto Attendolo (c. 1390 – c. 1451)
Francesco Sforza (1401–1466)
Onorata Rodiani (1403–1452)
Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (1417–1468)
Bartolomeo Colleoni (c. 1400–1475)
Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona (1418–1487)
Federico III da Montefeltro (1422–1482)
Francesco Alidosi (1455–1511)
Vitellozzo Vitelli (1458–1502)
Oliverotto Euffreducci (1475–1502)
Niccolò di Pitigliano (died 1510)
Ettore Fieramosca (1479–1515)
Cesare Borgia (1475–1507)
Prospero Colonna (1452–1523)
Bartolomeo d'Alviano (1455–1515)
Mercurio Bua (1478–1542)
Gian Giacomo Trivulzio (c. 1441–1518)
Giovanni dalle Bande Nere (1498–1526)
Piero Strozzi (c. 1510–1558)

Significant Engagements

Battles Shaping Italian History

The condottieri were central figures in numerous pivotal conflicts that defined the political landscape of medieval and Renaissance Italy. Their engagements often involved complex alliances and shifting loyalties.

Battle of Montecatini (1315)
Battle of Parabiago (1339)
Battle of Cascina (1364)
War of the Eight Saints (1375–1378), including the Cesena Bloodbath (1377)
Battle of Marino (1379)
Battle of Castagnaro (1387)
Battle of Casalecchio (1402)
Battle of Motta (1412)
Battle of Sant'Egidio (1416)
Battle of Maclodio (1427)
Battle of San Romano (1432)
Battle of Anghiari (1440)
Battle of Bosco Marengo (1447)
Battle of Troia (1462)
Battle of Molinella (1467)
Battle of Crevola (1487)
Battle of Calliano (1487)
Battle of Agnadello (1509)
Battle of Marciano (1554)
Wars of Castro (1641–1649)

Enduring Legacy

From Mercenary to Military Leader

While the specific institution of the condotta faded with the advent of national standing armies, the term condottiero evolved. It came to signify distinguished military commanders, both Italian and foreign, who served throughout the European wars of religion and beyond. Figures like Ambrogio Spinola and Raimondo Montecuccoli represent this later phase, where the title denoted high military rank and strategic command rather than solely mercenary leadership.

Connections and Resources

The rich history of the condottieri is preserved in various archives and cultural repositories. Resources such as Wikimedia Commons offer visual documentation, while historical texts and databases provide detailed accounts of their campaigns and lives.

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Masters of the Contract

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining the Condottiero 📜

⚔️ Mercenary Commanders

💰 The Contractual Basis

Historical Context and Origins 🏰

🌍 Wealthy City-States and Small Armies

🛡️ Crusades and Early Bands

The Rise of Italian Leadership 📈

🇮🇹 Italian Captains Emerge

🧠 Warfare as Military Science

Strategic Acumen and Tactics 🧠

🎯 Outmaneuvering the Enemy

⏳ Avoiding Direct Engagement

Evolution of the Term and Role 🔄

📜 From Contractor to Commander

🏛️ Enduring Influence

Notable Condottieri 👤

📜 Prominent Figures

Significant Engagements 💥

⚔️ Battles Shaping Italian History

Enduring Legacy 🏛️

🌐 From Mercenary to Military Leader

🔗 Connections and Resources

🖼️ Visual Archives

📖 Historical Texts

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining the Condottiero

Mercenary Commanders

The Contractual Basis

Historical Context and Origins

Wealthy City-States and Small Armies

Crusades and Early Bands

The Rise of Italian Leadership

Italian Captains Emerge

Warfare as Military Science

Strategic Acumen and Tactics

Outmaneuvering the Enemy

Avoiding Direct Engagement

Evolution of the Term and Role

From Contractor to Commander

Enduring Influence

Notable Condottieri

Prominent Figures

Significant Engagements

Battles Shaping Italian History

Enduring Legacy

From Mercenary to Military Leader

Connections and Resources

Visual Archives

Historical Texts

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice