What is the fundamental definition of decolonization?

Decolonization is defined as the undoing of colonialism. Colonialism itself is the process by which imperial nations establish and maintain dominance over foreign territories, often located overseas. This process involves the dismantling of colonial structures and the establishment of self-governance in formerly colonized regions.

What are the primary focuses for scholars studying decolonization?

Scholars of decolonization often concentrate on two main aspects: the independence movements that sought to liberate colonized territories from their ruling metropoles, and the subsequent collapse or dissolution of global colonial empires.

When did the movement for decolonization begin, and what were its major waves?

The movement to establish independence for colonized territories began as early as 1775 in North America. Significant waves of decolonization occurred in the aftermath of the First World War and, most prominently, after the Second World War.

According to David Strang, what are the two primary ways decolonization can be achieved?

David Strang posits that decolonization is achieved through either the acquisition of sovereign statehood, which must be recognized by the international community, or through the complete incorporation of a territory into an existing sovereign state.

What is the United Nations' perspective on the core requirement for decolonization?

The United Nations views the fundamental right to self-determination as the core requirement for decolonization. Importantly, the UN states that this right can be exercised whether or not a territory achieves full political independence.

How did the UN General Assembly characterize colonial foreign rule in 1960?

In 1960, a UN General Assembly Resolution specifically characterized colonial foreign rule as a violation of human rights, aligning with the principle of self-determination for colonized peoples.

What historical periods are identified as particularly active for decolonization?

Several periods saw significant decolonization activity: the breakup of the Spanish Empire in the 19th century; the dissolution of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires following World War I; the decline of the British, French, Dutch, Portuguese, Belgian, Italian, and Japanese Empires after World War II; and the dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War.

Which influential works contributed to the early studies of decolonization in the 1960s and 1970s?

Early studies of decolonization in the 1960s and 1970s included Frantz Fanon's seminal work, 'The Wretched of the Earth' (1961), which laid groundwork for many subsequent analyses. Later studies, such as Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o's 'Decolonising the Mind' (1986), explored the economic and cultural legacies of colonialism.

What is meant by 'intellectual decolonization'?

Intellectual decolonization refers to the process of shedding the colonizers' ideas and perspectives that may have led the colonized population to feel inferior. It involves reclaiming and valuing indigenous knowledge systems and ways of thinking.

In the two centuries following the American Revolutionary War, how many colonies gained independence from Western imperial powers?

In the two centuries after the American Revolutionary War concluded in 1783, a total of 165 colonies achieved independence from Western imperial powers.

What are some of the different analytical perspectives on the spread of anti-colonial political movements?

Analyses suggest various reasons for the spread of anti-colonial movements, including institutional factors like increased education leading to demands for popular sovereignty, Marxist interpretations focusing on economic shifts and the rise of a bourgeoisie, and the diffusion of revolutionary ideas from earlier movements. Other explanations point to the declining profitability and increasing costs of maintaining empires.

How did the Age of Enlightenment influence decolonization movements?

The Age of Enlightenment provided key ideological underpinnings for national independence movements. Enlightenment theories emphasizing individualism and liberalism were crucial in shaping the debates around national constitutions for newly independent states.

What was the significance of the American Revolution in the context of decolonization?

The Thirteen North American colonies' declaration of independence and subsequent victory in the Revolutionary War marked the first instance of colonies successfully breaking away from a major European imperial power, establishing the United States of America.

What was the Haitian Revolution, and what was its outcome?

The Haitian Revolution, beginning in 1789 with a revolt and escalating into a slave uprising in 1791 in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, resulted in Haiti securing its independence from France in 1804. It established the Empire of Haiti, which later transitioned into a republic.

How did the Napoleonic Wars impact the decolonization of Spanish America?

The Napoleonic Wars disrupted the direct governance and communication between Spain and its American colonies. This disruption created an opportunity for the colonies to declare autonomy and eventually pursue independence, driven partly by the metropolis's economic monopoly.

What event marked the end of the mainland Spanish American wars of independence?

The mainland Spanish American wars of independence concluded with the defeat of Spanish forces at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, leading to the freedom of territories that would form new nations.

How did the Napoleonic Wars affect Portugal's relationship with Brazil?

The Napoleonic Wars led to the Portuguese royal court fleeing to Brazil in 1807 to escape invasion. This relocation severed direct links between Portugal and its colony, Brazil, contributing to tensions that ultimately resulted in Brazil's independence in 1822.

What was the general protocol for decolonization within the British Empire?

The British Empire typically followed a protocol that involved convening a constitutional conference in London to discuss the transition to greater self-government and eventual independence. This was followed by parliamentary approval of the new constitution and the issuance of an Order in Council to set the date for independence.

How did the Statute of Westminster (1931) affect the British Empire?

The Statute of Westminster, following the Balfour Declaration of 1926, established full legislative independence for the British Dominions, recognizing them as equal entities within the evolving structure of the British Commonwealth.

What role did Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi play in India's decolonization?

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was a key leader of the Indian independence movement. He advocated for peaceful resistance against British rule, fostering a sense of nationalism that ultimately contributed to India's independence in 1947.

What were some of the key drivers for the decolonization of Africa in the mid-to-late 1950s?

The decolonization of Africa occurred rapidly in the mid-to-late 1950s, often with little preparation. It was fueled by widespread unrest and organized revolts in colonies like French Algeria, Portuguese Angola, the Belgian Congo, and British Kenya, alongside the growing strength of African nationalism.

What was the status of Africa in terms of independence in 1945?

In 1945, at the beginning of the post-World War II era, only four countries in Africa were independent: Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia, and South Africa.

How did the United States approach imperialism and decolonization differently from European powers?

As a former colony itself, the United States directed much of its expansionist energy westward across North America. It also asserted influence in the Americas through the Monroe Doctrine, prohibiting European recolonization, while later intervening in Latin American affairs and acquiring overseas territories after the Spanish-American War.

What territories did the U.S. acquire following the Spanish-American War in 1898?

Following the Spanish-American War in 1898, the United States acquired most of Spain's remaining colonies, including Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam.

What was the significance of the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934 regarding the Philippines?

The Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934 planned a smooth transition for the Philippines towards independence from the United States, which was scheduled for 1946. This led to the Philippines gaining Commonwealth status in 1935.

How did the Roosevelt Corollary modify the Monroe Doctrine?

The Roosevelt Corollary, issued in 1904, expanded the Monroe Doctrine by asserting the United States' right and obligation to intervene in Western Hemisphere nations exhibiting 'flagrant cases of wrongdoing or impotence' that could make them vulnerable to European control, effectively positioning the U.S. as an enforcer of regional stability.

What was Japan's colonial policy in East Asia before and after World War I?

Before World War I, Japan acquired colonial possessions like Taiwan (1895) and Korea (1910). After WWI, it gained the South Seas Mandate. Japan pursued a policy of settling ethnic Japanese in colonies while suppressing indigenous populations and enforcing the use of the Japanese language.

What happened to Japan's colonial empire after World War II?

Following its surrender in 1945, Japan was stripped of all its colonial possessions. Some of these territories were returned to their original Western colonizing powers, while others, like the southern Kuril Islands, were occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.

What challenges did newly independent states typically face after decolonization?

Newly independent states commonly faced challenges in state-building, which involved establishing or strengthening governmental institutions, laws, and administrative systems. They also engaged in nation-building to foster a sense of national identity and loyalty, and focused on economic development to create independent financial and regulatory structures.

What is 'linguistic decolonization'?

Linguistic decolonization refers to the policy of replacing the language of the former colonizing power with an indigenous language as the official language within a newly independent state. This process aims to reclaim cultural and linguistic autonomy.

What did Haile Gerima describe as the 'colonization of the unconscious'?

Filmmaker Haile Gerima described the 'colonization of the unconscious' as an experience from his childhood where he and other children would play games mimicking movie narratives, identifying with the colonizers (like cowboys) and completely adopting their perspective, failing to identify with the colonized (like Native Americans).

What is the significance of repatriation in the context of settler colonialism?

In settler colonial states, repatriation refers to the departure or expulsion of colonial settlers, which often occurred during decolonization in many parts of the world. However, in countries like Australia, Canada, and the United States, settlers largely remained, perpetuating ongoing systems of oppression.

What economic strategies did many decolonized countries implement?

Many decolonized countries implemented strategies such as creating national currencies and banks, promoting industrialization, nationalizing key industries and infrastructure, and engaging in land reform to redistribute land or establish collective farms.

According to John Kenneth Galbraith, what were the economic reasons behind post-WWII decolonization?

John Kenneth Galbraith argued that post-World War II decolonization was driven by economic factors, as the advanced industrial countries found their primary economic engines within and between themselves. Colonial trade became less significant compared to domestic economic growth, making the maintenance of empires less economically compelling.

What does David Strang suggest about the impact of decolonization on former colonial powers like France and Britain?

David Strang suggests that the loss of their empires transformed former colonial powers like France and Britain into 'second-rate powers' on the global stage.

What criticism has been leveled against the broader interpretation of decolonization?

Some critics argue that extending the meaning of decolonization beyond political independence and equal rights to encompass broader economic, cultural, and psychological aspects is contentious. Political theorist Kevin Duong suggested that decolonization might have led to disenfranchisement, as some anti-colonial activists initially sought universal suffrage within empires rather than outright independence.

What is the UN's definition of Non-Self-Governing Territories (NSGSs)?

The United Nations defines Non-Self-Governing Territories (NSGSs) under Chapter XI of the UN Charter as territories whose populations have not yet achieved a full measure of self-government, which is the contemporary definition of colonialism.

What was the outcome of the International Court of Justice's ruling regarding the Chagos Archipelago?

In February 2019, the International Court of Justice ruled that the United Kingdom was obliged to end its control over the Chagos Archipelago, stating it must transfer the islands to Mauritius as they were not legally separated in 1965. The UN General Assembly later affirmed this ruling.

What did a 2019 study find regarding the effects of decolonization on democracy and conflict?

A 2019 study indicated that levels of democracy increased significantly in colonies as they gained internal autonomy before independence. However, the study also found that conflict, revenue growth, and economic growth did not show systematic differences before and after independence.

What is the significance of the Bandung Conference in the context of decolonization?

The Bandung Conference in 1955 was a significant gathering of leaders from newly independent states, including Jawaharlal Nehru, Sukarno, Josip Broz Tito, and Gamal Abdel Nasser. It was a key event in the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement, which aimed to oppose continued economic colonialism by former imperial powers.

What was the purpose of the New International Economic Order (NIEO)?

The New International Economic Order (NIEO), promoted by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), aimed to establish more equitable economic relationships between industrialized and developing countries. Its principles included sovereign equality, control over natural resources, fair commodity prices, and technology transfer.

What is the historical significance of the 'Statute of Westminster' enacted in 1931?

The Statute of Westminster granted full legislative independence to the British Dominions, formally recognizing them as equal partners within the British Commonwealth and marking a significant step in the evolution away from direct imperial control.

How did the end of World War II impact the French colonial empire?

Although France was a victor in World War II, the Nazi occupation disrupted its colonial rule. After the war, France established the French Union, replacing the colonial empire, but power remained centralized, and nationalist movements gained strength, leading to events like the Madagascar revolt and the First Indochina War.

What role did the United Nations play in the decolonization process after World War II?

The United Nations played a crucial role by establishing trust territories from former League of Nations mandates and by adopting the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960. The UN also designated Non-Self-Governing Territories and called for the acceleration of decolonization efforts.

What were some of the key challenges faced by newly independent African nations?

Newly independent African nations often inherited colonial borders that did not align with ethnic or cultural groups, leading to potential internal divisions. Many also faced the task of establishing stable governance, fostering national unity, and developing their economies after decades of colonial exploitation.

What is the 'coloniality of power' concept mentioned in relation to decolonization?

The 'coloniality of power' refers to the enduring structures of domination and hierarchy established during colonialism that persist even after formal decolonization. It suggests that the patterns of control, exploitation, and racialization established by colonial powers continue to shape global relations and social structures.

What does 'linguistic imperialism' mean in the context of decolonization?

Linguistic imperialism is the imposition and enforcement of one dominant language over other languages, often by a colonial power. Linguistic decolonization is a response to this, aiming to promote and restore indigenous languages within the former colonies.

What was the impact of the 1961 Paris massacre during the Algerian War, according to Paul Ricœur?

According to philosopher Paul Ricœur, the 1961 Paris massacre during the Algerian War highlighted the need for a 'decolonisation of memory.' Recognizing such events is seen as a crucial step in addressing the traumatic legacies of colonialism for both the former colonizer and the colonized.

How did the end of the Soviet Union relate to decolonization?

The weakening of Soviet control over its member republics in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to their declarations of independence. This process is seen by some historians, like Robert Daniels, as sharing dimensions with decolonization, as these republics asserted sovereignty after decades of Russian dominance.

What is the significance of the 'flying geese paradigm' mentioned in relation to trade and development?

The 'flying geese paradigm' is a theory describing how developing economies in East Asia, following Japan's lead, progressed through stages of industrialization and technological advancement. It suggests a pattern of development where nations follow each other in adopting new economic strategies, often influenced by regional trade and investment.

What were the main arguments presented by John Kenneth Galbraith regarding the economic motivations for decolonization?

Galbraith argued that post-World War II decolonization was primarily driven by economic shifts. He noted that the advanced industrial countries found their economic growth engines within themselves, making colonial trade less critical and the costs of empire burdensome, thus leading to a 'disinterest' in maintaining colonies.

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Understanding Decolonization

Undoing Colonialism

Decolonization signifies the process of dismantling colonialism, wherein imperial nations establish and dominate foreign territories. This term encompasses the movements for independence in colonized territories and the subsequent collapse of global colonial empires.^[1]^[2]^[3] While the core concept revolves around the cessation of colonial rule, its application and interpretation are subjects of scholarly debate.

Historical Waves

The initial significant movement towards decolonization occurred in North America with the American Revolution. Major waves of decolonization followed World War I and, most prominently, after World War II, leading to the dissolution of vast European colonial empires across Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean.

Self-Determination

The United Nations posits that the fundamental right to self-determination is central to decolonization. This right can be realized through political independence or full incorporation into an existing sovereign state. Colonial foreign rule is officially recognized by the UN as a violation of human rights.^[5]^[6]^[7]

Defining the Scope

Statehood and Recognition

David Strang defines decolonization as the achievement of sovereign statehood, recognized de jure by the international community, or through complete integration into an established sovereign state.^[4] This dual pathway highlights the varied outcomes of anti-colonial struggles.

Indigenous Demands

In contexts of settler colonialism, particularly in the Americas and South Africa, Indigenous peoples continue to assert demands for decolonization and self-determination, extending the concept beyond the initial dissolution of empires.^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] These contemporary movements often engage with the principles of decoloniality.

Intellectual Dimensions

The concept of decolonization also extends to intellectual spheres, addressing the dismantling of colonial ideologies and the reclaiming of indigenous epistemologies. Works like Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o's Decolonising the Mind explore the cultural and linguistic legacies of colonialism, advocating for the liberation of thought from colonial frameworks.^[14]^[15]

Decolonization Across Regions

Early Independence Movements

The late 18th and early 19th centuries witnessed significant decolonization efforts. The American Revolution (1776) marked the first major break from European colonial rule, followed by the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), which established Haiti as an independent republic.^[28]^[29]

American Revolution: The Thirteen Colonies declared independence from Great Britain, culminating in the formation of the United States.^[28]
Haitian Revolution: A successful slave revolt led to Haiti's independence from France in 1804.^[30]
Spanish America: The Napoleonic Wars destabilized Spanish rule, enabling independence movements across Latin America, culminating in battles like Ayacucho (1824).^[30]
Brazil: Fleeing Napoleon, the Portuguese court's relocation to Brazil facilitated its eventual independence as an Empire in 1822.^[30]

The British Empire's Transformation

The British Empire underwent significant decolonization, particularly after World War II. This process often involved constitutional conferences and parliamentary acts to facilitate the transition to self-governance and independence.^[31]

Middle East & Africa: Mandates like Iraq gained independence (1932). Post-WWII, many African nations achieved independence in the mid-to-late 1950s and 1960s, often rapidly and with limited preparation.^[60]
Asia: British India was partitioned into India and Pakistan in 1947. Burma and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) followed in 1948.^[33]
Oceania: Fiji, Tonga, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and Kiribati gained independence in the latter half of the 20th century.^[65]

French Colonial Transitions

French decolonization was often marked by protracted struggles, particularly in North Africa. The post-WWII era saw the establishment of the French Union, but nationalist movements gained momentum, leading to independence.

Indochina: Following World War II, nationalist movements led to the First Indochina War, resulting in the independence of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.^[65]
North Africa: Morocco and Tunisia gained independence in 1956. The Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962) was a particularly violent and traumatic process.^[38]
West & Equatorial Africa: Numerous nations gained independence in 1960, often with limited prior self-governance.^[60]

Portuguese Empire's End

Portugal's authoritarian regime fiercely resisted decolonization until the Carnation Revolution in 1974. This led to the rapid independence of its African colonies.

African Colonies: Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and Cape Verde gained independence in 1974-1975 following armed struggles.^[46]
Asia: Portuguese India was annexed by India in 1961, and Portuguese Timor became independent as East Timor in 1975 (though later occupied by Indonesia).^[65]
Macau: The last major Portuguese possession, Macau, was returned to China in 1999.^[65]

Belgian Congo's Abrupt Independence

Belgium's colonial rule, particularly in the Congo, was characterized by a lack of preparation for self-governance. The independence of the Belgian Congo in 1960 was abrupt and led to significant internal conflict.^[48]

Belgian Congo: Gained independence as the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1960, followed by a protracted civil war.^[48]
Ruanda-Urundi: These territories, administered as League of Nations mandates, became independent as Rwanda and Burundi in 1962.^[65]

Dutch East Indies and Beyond

The Netherlands lost its largest colony, the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), after a struggle following World War II, influenced by Cold War dynamics.^[49]^[50]

Indonesia: Independence was recognized in 1949 after a four-year struggle, with significant US pressure on the Netherlands.^[49]
Suriname: The South American colony became independent in 1975.^[50]

Japanese Colonial Dissolution

Following World War II, Japan's colonial empire in East Asia and the Pacific was dissolved. National independence movements resisted the re-establishment of European or American control.

East Asia: The Republic of China regained control of territories occupied by Japan. Korea was divided into North and South Korea. The Philippines gained independence from the U.S. in 1946.^[65]
Pacific: The Japanese colonial empire's mandate territories were dissolved, with some becoming independent or administered by other powers.

UN Trust Territories

The United Nations established trust territories, primarily former League of Nations mandates, to guide towards independence or merger. Most achieved this status by the late 20th century.

As of 2020, 17 territories remain listed as Non-Self-Governing Territories by the UN, indicating ongoing processes or disputes related to decolonization.

Administering Power	Territory
United Kingdom	Anguilla
United Kingdom	Bermuda
United Kingdom	British Virgin Islands
United Kingdom	Cayman Islands
United Kingdom	Falkland Islands
United Kingdom	Montserrat
United Kingdom	Saint Helena
United Kingdom	Turks and Caicos Islands
United Kingdom	Gibraltar
United Kingdom	Pitcairn
United States	American Samoa
United States	United States Virgin Islands
United States	Guam
New Zealand	Tokelau
Spain	Western Sahara
France	New Caledonia
France	French Polynesia

Post-1945 Global Shifts

The emergence of the "Third World" post-1945 saw newly independent states organizing to counter economic colonialism. Movements like the Non-Aligned Movement and initiatives like UNCTAD's call for a New International Economic Order aimed to reshape global economic structures.^[51]^[52]^[53]

Key principles of the New International Economic Order (NIEO) included sovereign equality, control over natural resources, fair trade prices, and enhanced international assistance for industrialization.

Despite these efforts, economic inequalities persisted, influenced by global economic shifts and policies like the Washington Consensus in the 1990s.

Key Aspects of Decolonization

State-Building

Newly independent nations faced the critical task of establishing robust state institutions, including governments, legal systems, militaries, and administrative structures. The degree of prior self-rule and post-independence assistance varied significantly.

Most post-colonial states adopted republican or constitutional monarchy models, developing constitutions and electoral systems to foster representative democracy.

Nation-Building

Nation-building efforts focused on fostering a sense of national identity and loyalty, replacing colonial or tribal allegiances with allegiance to the new state. This involved creating national symbols, histories, and promoting official languages.^[76]^[77]^[75]

Monuments like Ghana's Black Star Monument, erected by Kwame Nkrumah, symbolize this process of national commemoration and identity formation.

Language Policy

Linguistic decolonization involves replacing the colonizer's language with indigenous languages in official capacities. This process has been uneven, with many former colonies retaining the imperial language due to practical considerations or established linguistic infrastructure.^[78]^[79]^[80]

Cinematography and Representation

Filmmaker Haile Gerima described the "colonization of the unconscious," where colonial narratives shape perceptions from childhood. Post-colonial cinema often seeks to counter these narratives, depicting local populations as protagonists against imperial forces.^[81]

Kung fu cinema, for example, emerged as a form of cultural resistance, portraying local heroes opposing foreign imperialists.

Repatriation and Settler Issues

In many decolonized nations, large settler populations faced expulsion or departure. However, in settler colonial states like Canada, Australia, and the United States, settlers often remained, perpetuating systemic oppression and making true decolonization challenging.^[82]^[83]

Cases like Algeria's decolonization saw significant evacuation of European settlers. In Zimbabwe, land seizures impacted white farmers, and in Uganda, Idi Amin expelled the Asian minority.

Economic Development

Newly independent states focused on developing independent economic institutions, including national currencies and industries. Many pursued industrialization, nationalized key sectors, or implemented land reforms.^[59]

Regional economic associations like ASEAN and ECOWAS were formed to foster trade and development among neighboring nations.

Effects on Colonizers

Economically, the loss of empires often had minimal negative impact on former colonial powers, as domestic growth and alternative means of economic influence compensated for the loss of direct control. John Kenneth Galbraith noted that decolonization was driven by shifting economic interests and a decreased reliance on colonial trade.^[104]

Decolonization allowed former powers to shed administrative burdens while often retaining economic leverage through trade agreements and financial influence.

Assassinated Anti-Colonial Leaders

Figures of Resistance

Many leaders who spearheaded anti-colonial movements met tragic ends, often through assassination orchestrated by colonial powers or their proxies. Their sacrifices remain pivotal in the narrative of decolonization.

Leader	Title	Assassin	Place of Death	Date of Death
Tiradentes	Colonial Brazilian revolutionary	Portuguese colonial administration	Rio de Janeiro, Portuguese Colony of Brazil	21 April 1792
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla	Leader of the Mexican War of Independence	Spanish colonial administration	Chihuahua, Viceroyalty of New Spain	30 July 1811
Ruben Um Nyobé	Leader of the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon	French army	Nyong-et-Kellé, French Cameroon	13 September 1958
Barthélemy Boganda	Leader of independence movement in the Central African Republic	Plane crash (suspected French involvement)	Boda District, Central African Republic	29 March 1959
Félix-Roland Moumié	Leader of Cameroon's People Union	French secret police SDECE	Geneva, Switzerland	3 November 1960
Patrice Lumumba	First Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	Separatist Katangan authorities (with Belgian support)	Élisabethville, Democratic Republic of the Congo	17 January 1961
Louis Rwagasore	Burundi nationalist	Rival political party leaders (suspected Belgian support)	Usumbura, Ruanda-Urundi	13 October 1961
Pierre Ngendandumwe	Rwandan Tutsi refugee	Unknown	Bujumbura, Burundi	15 January 1965
Sylvanus Olympio	First president of Togo	1963 Togolese coup d'état	Lomé, Togo	13 January 1963
Mehdi Ben Barka	Leader of the Moroccan National Union of Popular Forces	Moroccan secret service	Paris, France	29 October 1965
Ahmadu Bello	First premier of Northern Nigeria	1966 Nigerian coup d'état	Kaduna, Nigeria	15 January 1966
Eduardo Mondlane	Leader of FRELIMO	Unknown (possibly Portuguese secret police PIDE)	Dar es Salaam, Tanzania	3 February 1969
Mohamed Bassiri	Leader of the Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Wadi el Dhahab	Spanish Legion	El Aaiun, Spanish Sahara	18 June 1970
Amílcar Cabral	Leader of PAIGC	Portuguese secret police DGS/PIDE	Conakry, Guinea	20 January 1973

Contemporary Colonies

UN Non-Self-Governing Territories

The United Nations continues to list territories whose populations have not yet attained full self-government. These Non-Self-Governing Territories (NSGSs) represent the contemporary manifestation of colonialism, with ongoing debates and processes for their future status.

Administering Power	Territory
United Kingdom	Anguilla
United Kingdom	Bermuda
United Kingdom	British Virgin Islands
United Kingdom	Cayman Islands
United Kingdom	Falkland Islands
United Kingdom	Montserrat
United Kingdom	Saint Helena
United Kingdom	Turks and Caicos Islands
United Kingdom	Gibraltar
United Kingdom	Pitcairn
United States	American Samoa
United States	United States Virgin Islands
United States	Guam
New Zealand	Tokelau
Spain	Western Sahara
France	New Caledonia
France	French Polynesia

The status of Western Sahara remains a subject of international dispute.

Impact and Legacies

Democracy and Conflict

Research indicates that levels of democracy generally increased significantly in the immediate period before independence. However, conflict and economic growth did not systematically differ before and after independence, suggesting complex post-colonial trajectories.^[103]

Shifting Global Power

David Strang posits that the loss of empires diminished the global standing of powers like France and Britain, transforming them into "second-rate powers."^[104] This shift reshaped the international geopolitical landscape.

Ongoing Debates

Contemporary scholarship, particularly in decolonial studies, critiques the emancipatory potential of Enlightenment thought and highlights the ongoing impact of colonial structures. The concept of "decolonizing knowledge" remains a critical area of academic inquiry.^[27]

Criticisms and Challenges

Unfinished Processes

The UN's ongoing efforts to eradicate colonialism, including the Third International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism, underscore that decolonization remains an incomplete process for many territories. Activists note that geopolitical conflicts can divert attention from the social and economic agendas of decolonization.^[96]^[97]

Chagos Archipelago Dispute

The sovereignty dispute over the Chagos Archipelago highlights ongoing colonial legacies. International legal rulings have favored Mauritius, yet the UK and US maintain differing positions, leading to accusations of hypocrisy and double-talk.^[99]^[100]^[101]^[102]

Post-Soviet Colonialism

The dissolution of the Soviet Union led to the independence of its constituent republics. However, concerns persist regarding Russian neo-colonialism and its influence over former Soviet territories, as evidenced by recent geopolitical events and academic re-evaluations of Russian studies.^[66]^[67]^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71]^[72]^[73]^[74]

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References

Heuman, J. (2023). The silent disappearance of Jews from Algeria: French anti-racism in the face of antisemitism in Algeria during the decolonization. Journal of Modern Jewish Studies, 22(2), 149-168.

Thomas A, Bailey, A diplomatic history of the American people (1969) online free

H. W. Brands, Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines (1992) pp. 138â60. online free

John P. Cann, Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War 1961â74 Solihull, UK (Helion Studies in Military History, No. 12), 2012.

Norrie MacQueen, The Decolonisation of Portuguese Africa: Metropolitan Revolution and the Dissolution of Empire

Henri Grimal, Decolonisation: The British, French, Dutch and Belgian Empires, 1919â63 (1978).

Jung Chang and John Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story, pp. 603â604, 2007 edition, Vintage Books

William Roger Louis, The transfer of power in Africa: decolonisation, 1940â1960 (Yale UP, 1982).

for the viewpoint from London and Paris see Rudolf von Albertini, Decolonisation: the Administration and Future of the Colonies, 1919â1960 (Doubleday, 1971).

Baylis, J. & Smith S. (2001). The Globalisation of World Politics: An introduction to international relations.

Glassner, Martin Ira (1980). Systematic Political Geography 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

"Power of the dead and language of the living: The Wanderings of Nationalist Memory in Cameroon", African Policy (June 1986), pp. 37-72

A full list of references for this article are available at the Decolonization Wikipedia page

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The Unraveling of Empires

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Understanding Decolonization ℹ️

🔗 Undoing Colonialism

⏳ Historical Waves

⚖️ Self-Determination

Defining the Scope 🎯

🏛️ Statehood and Recognition

✊ Indigenous Demands

📜 Intellectual Dimensions

Decolonization Across Regions 🌐

🇺🇸 Early Independence Movements

🇬🇧 The British Empire's Transformation

🇫🇷 French Colonial Transitions

🇵🇹 Portuguese Empire's End

🇧🇪 Belgian Congo's Abrupt Independence

🇳🇱 Dutch East Indies and Beyond

🇯🇵 Japanese Colonial Dissolution

🇺🇳 UN Trust Territories

🌍 Post-1945 Global Shifts

Key Aspects of Decolonization ⚙️

🏛️ State-Building

🤝 Nation-Building

🗣️ Language Policy

🎬 Cinematography and Representation

🏠 Repatriation and Settler Issues

💰 Economic Development

📉 Effects on Colonizers

Assassinated Anti-Colonial Leaders ⚔️

🕯️ Figures of Resistance

Contemporary Colonies 📍

🇺🇳 UN Non-Self-Governing Territories

Impact and Legacies 📈

⚖️ Democracy and Conflict

🌍 Shifting Global Power

💡 Ongoing Debates

Criticisms and Challenges 🤔

⚠️ Unfinished Processes

🗣️ Chagos Archipelago Dispute

🇷🇺 Post-Soviet Colonialism

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

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Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Understanding Decolonization

Undoing Colonialism

Historical Waves

Self-Determination

Defining the Scope

Statehood and Recognition

Indigenous Demands

Intellectual Dimensions

Decolonization Across Regions

Early Independence Movements

The British Empire's Transformation

French Colonial Transitions

Portuguese Empire's End

Belgian Congo's Abrupt Independence

Dutch East Indies and Beyond

Japanese Colonial Dissolution

UN Trust Territories

Post-1945 Global Shifts

Key Aspects of Decolonization

State-Building

Nation-Building

Language Policy

Cinematography and Representation

Repatriation and Settler Issues

Economic Development

Effects on Colonizers

Assassinated Anti-Colonial Leaders

Figures of Resistance

Contemporary Colonies

UN Non-Self-Governing Territories

Impact and Legacies

Democracy and Conflict

Shifting Global Power

Ongoing Debates

Criticisms and Challenges

Unfinished Processes

Chagos Archipelago Dispute

Post-Soviet Colonialism

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice