What is the fundamental definition of an emission intensity?

An emission intensity, also known as carbon intensity (C.I.), is defined as the rate at which a specific pollutant is emitted in relation to the intensity of a particular activity or an industrial production process. This metric helps quantify the environmental impact per unit of output or activity.

Can you provide examples of how emission intensity is typically measured?

Emission intensity can be measured in various ways, such as grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced, or as the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced relative to a country's gross domestic product (GDP). These measurements provide a standardized way to compare emissions across different activities or economic outputs.

What are the primary applications of emission intensities?

Emission intensities are primarily used to estimate air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on activity data, such as the amount of fuel combusted, the number of animals in animal husbandry, industrial production levels, or distances traveled. They are also valuable for comparing the environmental impact of different fuels or activities.

What is the meaning of 'carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour' (CIPK)?

Carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour (CIPK) is a specific measure used to compare the emissions generated from various sources of electrical power. It quantifies the amount of carbon emitted for each unit of electricity produced, allowing for direct comparison of different energy generation methods.

How does the carbon intensity of electricity relate to greenhouse gas emissions?

The carbon intensity of electricity directly measures the quantity of greenhouse gases emitted for each unit of electricity produced. The units are typically expressed in grams of CO2 equivalents per kilowatt-hour of electricity, providing a clear indicator of the environmental footprint of electricity generation.

What does the carbon emission intensity of economies in kilograms of CO2 per unit of GDP represent?

The carbon emission intensity of economies, measured in kilograms of CO2 per unit of GDP, indicates how much carbon dioxide is emitted for every unit of economic output. This metric, as illustrated by 2016 data, helps assess the environmental efficiency of a country's economic activities.

What is the whole life-cycle assessment (LCA) methodology for determining carbon intensity?

The whole life-cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is a comprehensive approach that includes not only the carbon emissions directly from a specific process but also those associated with the production and end-of-life stages of all materials, plants, and machinery utilized in that process. This method is considered quite complex due to the large set of variables it requires.

How does the well-to-wheels (WTW) methodology differ from a full life-cycle assessment (LCA)?

The well-to-wheels (WTW) methodology is a simplified version of LCA, commonly applied in the energy and transport sectors. It accounts for emissions from the process itself and 'upstream emissions' from the extraction and refining of materials or fuel, but it specifically excludes emissions related to the manufacturing and end-of-life of plants and machinery.

Which models and analyses commonly use the well-to-wheels (WTW) methodology in the US and Europe?

In the United States, the GREET model commonly uses the well-to-wheels (WTW) methodology, while in Europe, it is employed in the JEC WTW analyses. These models help evaluate the environmental impact of fuels and vehicles from their source to their use.

What are WTW-LCA hybrid methods, and what do they aim to achieve?

WTW-LCA hybrid methods are designed to bridge the gap between the simplified well-to-wheels (WTW) and the more comprehensive life-cycle assessment (LCA) methodologies. For instance, an hybrid method for an Electric Vehicle that includes greenhouse gas emissions from battery manufacturing and end-of-life can result in 10–13% higher emissions compared to a pure WTW approach.

What is the simplest methodology for assessing carbon intensity, and what does it typically exclude?

The simplest methodology for assessing carbon intensity only considers emissions that occur directly during a specific process, such as the combustion of fuel in a power plant. This method typically excludes upstream emissions, which are those generated during the extraction and refining of the fuel.

Why is it crucial to consider boundary conditions when comparing different carbon intensity values?

It is crucial to consider all boundary conditions, or initial hypotheses, when comparing different carbon intensity values because calculation methods, geographic regions, and timeframes can significantly influence the results. For example, the carbon intensity of electricity in the European Union decreased by 20% on average from 2009 to 2013, highlighting the variability over time and region.

What was the observed range of CO2e emissions per megajoule for Chinese oil fields?

Chinese oil fields were observed to emit between 1.5 and more than 40 grams of CO2 equivalents per megajoule (g CO2e/MJ), with approximately 90% of all fields emitting within the range of 1.5–13.5 g CO2e. This wide range underscores the need for detailed analysis of emission activities.

What formula is used to estimate emissions based on activity and emission factors?

Emissions are estimated using the formula: Emission_pollutant = Activity * Emission Factor_pollutant. This linear relationship assumes that the amount of pollutant emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of the activity.

How are emission intensities utilized in projecting future climate scenarios?

Emission intensities are used in projecting possible future scenarios, such as those in the IPCC assessments. They are considered alongside projected changes in population, economic activity, and energy technologies, with their interrelations often analyzed using the Kaya identity.

For which pollutants can emissions from fuel combustion be estimated with a high degree of certainty, and why?

Carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions from fuel combustion can be estimated with a high degree of certainty. This is because CO2 emissions depend almost exclusively on the fuel's carbon content, and SO2 emissions depend on its sulfur content, both of which are generally known precisely. Additionally, carbon and sulfur are almost completely oxidized during combustion, converting entirely into CO2 and SO2 in the flue gases.

Why are estimates for other air pollutants and non-CO2 greenhouse gases from combustion less certain?

Estimates for other air pollutants and non-CO2 greenhouse gases, such as carbon monoxide, methane, non-methane volatile organic compounds, particulates, and nitrogen oxides (NOx), are less certain. Their emission levels depend on the specific combustion technology, incomplete combustion of a small fuel fraction, or complex chemical and physical processes occurring during combustion and in the smoke stack or tailpipe.

What factors contribute to the high uncertainty of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from agricultural soils?

Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from agricultural soils are highly uncertain because they are significantly influenced by a combination of factors, including the exact conditions of the soil, the application of fertilizers, and prevailing meteorological conditions. These variables make precise estimation challenging.

According to the IPCC's 2011 review, what was the 50th percentile CO2 emission value for hydroelectric power?

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) 2011 literature review found that the 50th percentile CO2 emission value for hydroelectric power from reservoirs was 4 grams of CO2 equivalents per kilowatt-hour of electricity (g CO2-eq/kWh_e).

How do wind and nuclear power compare in terms of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions per unit of electricity, based on the IPCC 2011 review?

Based on the IPCC's 2011 review, onshore wind power had a 50th percentile life-cycle greenhouse gas emission of 12 g CO2-eq/kWh_e, while various generation II reactor types for nuclear power had a slightly higher 50th percentile emission of 16 g CO2-eq/kWh_e. Both are considered low-emission sources.

Which electricity sources had the highest life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions according to the IPCC 2011 review?

According to the IPCC's 2011 review, coal (various generator types without scrubbing) had the highest 50th percentile life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions at 1001 g CO2-eq/kWh_e, followed by natural gas (various combined cycle turbines without scrubbing) at 469 g CO2-eq/kWh_e. Biomass also had a relatively high emission of 230 g CO2-eq/kWh_e.

What is the thermal emission factor for wood?

The thermal emission factor for wood is 115 grams of CO2 equivalents per megajoule thermal (g(CO2e)/MJth).

How does the thermal emission factor of peat compare to that of wood?

The thermal emission factor for peat ranges from 106 to 110 g(CO2e)/MJth, which is comparable to, and slightly lower than, the 115 g(CO2e)/MJth for wood.

What are the electric emission factors for coal and natural gas?

For coal, the electric emission factors range from 863–941 g(CO2)/kWh_e for black coal and 1,175 g(CO2)/kWh_e for brown coal. For natural gas, the electric emission factors are 577 g(CO2)/kWh_e for combined cycle and 751 g(CO2)/kWh_e for open cycle, with ranges provided for both.

What is the electric emission factor for oil-based electricity generation?

The electric emission factor for oil-based electricity generation is 893 g(CO2)/kWh_e.

What is the conversion factor between grams per megajoule (g/MJ) and grams per kilowatt-hour (g/kWh)?

The conversion factor is 3.6 MJ = 1 kWh, which means 1 g/MJ is equivalent to 3.6 g/kWh. This allows for easy conversion between thermal and electric emission intensity units.

What do the abbreviations B, Br, cc, oc, T_L, T_H, W_L, and W_H signify in the context of emission factors for fuels?

In the context of emission factors for fuels, B stands for Black coal (supercritical)–(new subcritical), Br for Brown coal (new subcritical), cc for combined cycle, oc for open cycle, T_L for low-temperature/closed-circuit (geothermal doublet), T_H for high-temperature/open-circuit, W_L for Light Water Reactors, and W_H for Heavy Water Reactors. These specify the type or technology used for energy generation.

What units are used for the carbon intensity of GDP data provided by the US Energy Information Administration?

The carbon intensity of GDP data from the US Energy Information Administration is measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars. This standardization allows for consistent comparison of economic carbon efficiency over time and across regions.

How is the carbon intensity of GDP data presented for different regions in the provided tables?

The carbon intensity of GDP data for different regions is presented as annual averages over three decades: 1980–89, 1990–99, and 2000–09. This allows for an analysis of trends and changes in carbon efficiency over time for various parts of the world.

Which region exhibited the highest carbon intensity of GDP when measured in Market Exchange Rates (MER) during the 1990-99 decade?

Eurasia exhibited the highest carbon intensity of GDP when measured in Market Exchange Rates (MER) during the 1990-99 decade, with a value of 3.31786 metric tons of CO2 per thousand 2005 US dollars.

Which region consistently showed the lowest carbon intensity of GDP measured in Market Exchange Rates (MER) across the three decades presented?

Europe consistently showed the lowest carbon intensity of GDP measured in Market Exchange Rates (MER) across the three decades presented, with values of 0.36840 (1980–89), 0.37245 (1990–99), and 0.30975 (2000–09).

How did North America's carbon intensity of GDP (MER) change from the 1980-89 decade to the 2000-09 decade?

North America's carbon intensity of GDP (MER) showed a decreasing trend, starting at 0.69381 in 1980-89, falling to 0.58681 in 1990-99, and further decreasing to 0.48160 in the 2000-09 decade.

Which region had the highest carbon intensity of GDP measured in Purchasing Power Parities (PPP) in the 1990-99 decade?

Eurasia had the highest carbon intensity of GDP measured in Purchasing Power Parities (PPP) in the 1990-99 decade, with a value of 1.43161 metric tons of CO2 per thousand 2005 US dollars.

What was the trend in the world's carbon intensity of GDP (PPP) across the three decades presented?

The world's carbon intensity of GDP (PPP) showed a slight increase from 0.54495 in 1980-89 to 0.54868 in 1990-99, followed by a decrease to 0.48058 in the 2000-09 decade.

What was the CO2 intensity of GDP in OECD countries in 2009, and how did it change from the previous year?

In 2009, the CO2 intensity of GDP in OECD countries was 0.33 kCO2/$05p (kilograms of CO2 per thousand 2005 US dollars, using purchasing power parities), representing a reduction of 2.9% from the previous year.

How did the USA's CO2 intensity of GDP compare to the OECD average in 2009?

In 2009, the USA posted a higher CO2 intensity of GDP at 0.41 kCO2/$05p, compared to the OECD average of 0.33 kCO2/$05p.

What was the trend in total CO2 emissions from energy use in Europe between 1990 and 2007?

Total CO2 emissions from energy use in Europe were 5% below their 1990 level in 2007. Over the period 1990–2007, emissions decreased on average by 0.3% per year, despite economic activity (GDP) increasing by 2.3% per year. Emissions initially dropped until 1994, then increased steadily until 2003, and slowly decreased again thereafter.

How did CO2 emissions per capita change in Europe from 1990 to 2007?

CO2 emissions per capita in Europe decreased from 8.7 metric tons in 1990 to 7.8 metric tons in 2007, which represents a 10% decrease over that period.

What was a significant factor contributing to the reduction of CO2 intensity in Europe between 1990 and 2007?

Almost 40% of the reduction in CO2 intensity in Europe between 1990 and 2007 was attributed to the increased use of energy carriers that have lower emission factors. This indicates a shift towards cleaner energy sources.

How did the decrease in CO2 intensity compare to the decrease in energy intensity in Europe between 1990 and 2007?

Between 1990 and 2007, total CO2 emissions per unit of GDP (CO2 intensity) decreased more rapidly than energy intensity, with average annual decreases of 2.3% and 1.4% respectively. This suggests that Europe was becoming more carbon-efficient in its economic output.

What do recent IPCC reports indicate about global emissions trends compared to earlier European reports?

While earlier reports from 2007 suggested decreasing CO2 emissions in Europe, recent studies, such as the IPCC's Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change report, indicate that global emissions are rapidly escalating. The report states that world emissions output was 59 gigatonnes in 2019, increasing by about 2.1% each year compared to the previous decade.

What carbon intensity figure did the Commodity Exchange Bratislava (CEB) calculate for Voluntary Emissions Reduction projects in 2012?

The Commodity Exchange Bratislava (CEB) calculated the carbon intensity for Voluntary Emissions Reduction projects in 2012 to be 0.343 metric tons per megawatt-hour (tn/MWh).

What percentage of the energy mix did renewable energy production reach in 2024, according to a recent report?

According to a 2024 report, renewable energy production reached 50% of the energy mix. This indicates a significant shift towards sustainable energy sources.

What level of investment is required for the EU to achieve its 2030 greenhouse gas emission reduction goal?

To achieve the EU's goal of decreasing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels, EU-based energy investment needs to double from the previous decade to more than €400 billion annually this decade. This includes approximately €300 billion for energy efficiency and €120 billion for power networks and renewable energy facilities.

Which guidelines does the UNFCCC accept for the estimation methods of national greenhouse gas inventories?

The UNFCCC has accepted the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, developed and published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), as the standard estimation methods. These guidelines ensure transparency, completeness, consistency, comparability, and accuracy of national inventories.

Where can default and country-specific greenhouse gas emission factors be found?

Default emission factors are primarily found in the IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, including the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. The IPCC also maintains an Emission Factor Database, and commercially applicable organizational greenhouse gas emission factors can be found on EmissionFactors.com.

When is it considered 'good practice' to develop country-specific emission factors for greenhouse gas inventories?

According to the IPCC, it is considered 'good practice' to develop a country-specific emission factor for an activity if that activity represents a major source of emissions for the country, often referred to as a 'key source.' This helps to provide more accurate emission estimates.

Which international and regional bodies require countries to produce annual National Air Pollution Emission Inventories?

The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and the EU National Emission Ceilings Directive (2016) require countries to produce annual National Air Pollution Emission Inventories under the provisions of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP).

What resource provides methods and emission factors for air pollutants in Europe?

The European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) Task Force of the European Environment Agency has developed methods and associated emission factors for air pollutants, which are published in the EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook.

Why does coal possess a high CO2 emission intensity?

Coal has a high CO2 emission intensity primarily because it is composed mostly of carbon. When coal is burned, the carbon reacts with oxygen to produce a large amount of CO2, making it a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions.

Emission Intensity Wiki: Deciphering Emissions: A Scholarly Examination of Carbon Intensity Metrics

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Defining Emission Intensity

The Core Concept

Emission intensity, often referred to as carbon intensity (C.I.), quantifies the rate at which a specific pollutant is released relative to the intensity of a particular activity or industrial process. This metric provides a standardized way to measure environmental impact, such as the grams of carbon dioxide emitted per megajoule of energy produced, or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions to Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Emission Factors and CIPK

These intensities are instrumental in estimating air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions, basing calculations on activity data like fuel combustion volume, livestock numbers in animal husbandry, industrial production levels, or distances traveled. They also serve as a comparative tool to evaluate the environmental footprint of diverse fuels or activities. The terms "emission factor" and "carbon intensity" are sometimes used interchangeably, though "carbon" typically excludes other pollutants like particulates. A widely recognized metric is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour (CIPK), which facilitates the comparison of emissions from various electrical power sources.

Economic and Energy Context

The concept of emission intensity is crucial for understanding the environmental efficiency of economies and energy systems. For instance, the carbon intensity of electricity measures the amount of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of electricity produced, typically expressed in grams of CO₂ equivalents per kilowatt-hour. Similarly, the carbon emission intensity of economies is often presented in kilograms of CO₂ per unit of GDP, offering insight into how much carbon is emitted for each unit of economic output.

Methodological Approaches

Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA)

The whole life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive methodology that accounts for carbon emissions not only from a specific process but also from the production and end-of-life stages of all materials, plants, and machinery involved. This method is notably complex, requiring an extensive array of variables for accurate calculation.

Well-to-Wheels (WTW) Analysis

Commonly applied in the energy and transport sectors, the well-to-wheels (WTW) approach is a simplified LCA. It considers emissions from the process itself, alongside "upstream emissions" related to the extraction and refining of raw materials or fuel. However, WTW typically excludes emissions associated with the manufacturing and disposal of plants and machinery. Prominent examples include the GREET model in the US and the JEC WTW analysis in Europe.

Hybrid and Contextual Methods

Hybrid methods, such as WTW-LCA, aim to bridge the analytical gap between the two. For instance, an electric vehicle's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions assessment using a hybrid method that includes battery manufacturing and end-of-life can yield 10–13% higher emissions compared to a pure WTW analysis. Furthermore, some methods focus solely on emissions occurring during a specific process, disregarding upstream or downstream impacts. It is critical to consider all boundary conditions and initial hypotheses when comparing carbon intensity values, as results can vary significantly across geographic regions and timeframes. For example, the carbon intensity of electricity in the European Union decreased by an average of 20% between 2009 and 2013, highlighting the dynamic nature of these metrics.

Estimating Emissions

The Emission Factor Model

Emission factors posit a linear relationship between activity intensity and the resulting emissions. This is expressed by the formula: Emission_pollutant = Activity × Emission Factor_pollutant. These intensities are also integral to projecting future scenarios, such as those utilized in IPCC assessments, which integrate anticipated changes in population, economic activity, and energy technologies. The interdependencies of these variables are analyzed through the Kaya identity.

High Certainty Emissions

Emissions of certain pollutants can be estimated with a high degree of certainty. For instance, carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from fuel combustion are largely dependent on the fuel's carbon content, which is typically known with precision. Similarly, sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emissions are predictable due to the well-established sulfur content of fuels. Both carbon and sulfur undergo almost complete oxidation during combustion, ensuring their presence as CO₂ and SO₂ in flue gases.

Variable Certainty Emissions

Conversely, the emission levels of other air pollutants and non-CO₂ greenhouse gases from combustion are highly dependent on the specific technology employed. These emissions often arise from incomplete combustion (e.g., carbon monoxide, methane, non-methane volatile organic compounds) or complex chemical and physical processes within the combustion system and exhaust. Examples include particulates and nitrogen oxides (NO_x), which are mixtures of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂). Furthermore, nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from agricultural soils are particularly uncertain, influenced by soil conditions, fertilizer application, and meteorological factors.

Electric Generation Emissions

Global Energy Footprints

A 2011 review by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesized numerous studies on the total life cycle CO₂ emissions per unit of electricity generated from various energy sources. The 50th percentile values for these total life cycle emissions are presented below, offering a comparative overview of the greenhouse gas intensity of different electricity generation technologies.

Lifecycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Electricity Source (IPCC, 2011)

Technology	Description	50th percentile (g CO₂-eq/kWh_e)
Hydroelectric	reservoir	4
Wind	onshore	12
Nuclear	various generation II reactor types	16
Biomass	various	230
Solar thermal	parabolic trough	22
Geothermal	hot dry rock	45
Solar PV	Polycrystalline silicon	46
Natural gas	various combined cycle turbines without scrubbing	469
Coal	various generator types without scrubbing	1001

Fuel-Specific Emission Factors

Beyond electricity generation, understanding the emission factors of common fuels is crucial for assessing their direct environmental impact. These factors quantify the thermal and electric CO₂ equivalent emissions per unit of energy. The table below provides a detailed breakdown, including the thermal emissions in grams of CO₂ equivalent per megajoule (g(CO_2e)/MJ_th) and electric emissions in grams of CO₂ per kilowatt-hour (g(CO₂)/kW·h_e), along with energy intensity estimates.

Emission Factors of Common Fuels

Fuel/Resource	Thermal g(CO_2e)/MJ_th	Energy Intensity (min & max estimate) W·h_th/W·h_e	Electric (min & max estimate) g(CO₂)/kW·h_e
Wood	115
Peat	106-110
Coal	B:91.50–91.72 Br:94.33 88	B:2.62–2.85 Br:3.46 3.01	B:863–941 Br:1,175 955
Oil	73	3.40	893
Natural gas	cc:68.20 oc:68.40 51	cc:2.35 (2.20 – 2.57) oc:3.05 (2.81 – 3.46)	cc:577 (491–655) oc:751 (627–891) 599
Geothermal Power	3~		T_L0–1 T_H91–122
Uranium Nuclear power		W_L0.18 (0.16~0.40) W_H0.20 (0.18~0.35)	W_L60 (10~130) W_H65 (10~120)
Hydroelectricity		0.046 (0.020 – 0.137)	15 (6.5 – 44)
Conc. Solar Pwr			40±15#
Photovoltaics		0.33 (0.16 – 0.67)	106 (53–217)
Wind power		0.066 (0.041 – 0.12)	21 (13–40)

Note: 3.6 MJ = 1 kW·h, thus 1 g/MJ = 3.6 g/kW·h.

Legend: B = Black coal (supercritical)–(new subcritical), Br = Brown coal (new subcritical), cc = combined cycle, oc = open cycle, T_L = low-temperature/closed-circuit (geothermal doublet), T_H = high-temperature/open-circuit, W_L = Light Water Reactors, W_H = Heavy Water Reactors, #Educated estimate.

Regional Carbon Intensity

GDP Intensity (MER)

The carbon intensity of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), measured in market exchange rates (MER), provides insight into the carbon efficiency of regional economies. Data from the US Energy Information Administration, averaged over decades, reveals significant variations. For instance, Eurasia exhibited a notably high carbon intensity in the 1990s and 2000s, while Europe consistently maintained lower intensities. North America showed a decreasing trend over these periods, reflecting shifts in economic structure and energy use.

Carbon Intensity of GDP, Measured in MER (Metric tons of CO₂ per thousand year 2005 US dollars)

Region	1980–89	1990–99	2000–09
Africa	1.13149	1.20702	1.03995
Asia & Oceania	0.86256	0.83015	0.91721
Central & South America	0.55840	0.57278	0.56015
Eurasia	NA	3.31786	2.36849
Europe	0.36840	0.37245	0.30975
Middle East	0.98779	1.21475	1.22310
North America	0.69381	0.58681	0.48160
World	0.62170	0.66120	0.60725

GDP Intensity (PPP)

When measured using purchasing power parities (PPP), the carbon intensity of GDP offers a different perspective, adjusting for differences in the purchasing power of currencies. This metric also highlights regional disparities and trends. In 2009, OECD countries reduced their CO₂ intensity by 2.9%, reaching 0.33 kCO₂/$05p (2005 US dollars, PPP). Europe experienced the largest drop, while China, despite slight improvements, maintained a high intensity of 0.81 kCO₂/$05p. Asia's intensity rose by 2% in 2009 due to strong energy consumption growth.

Carbon Intensity of GDP, Measured in PPP (Metric tons of CO₂ per thousand year 2005 US dollars)

Region	1980–89	1990–99	2000–09
Africa	0.48844	0.50215	0.43067
Asia & Oceania	0.66187	0.59249	0.57356
Central & South America	0.30095	0.30740	0.30185
Eurasia	NA	1.43161	1.02797
Europe	0.40413	0.38897	0.32077
Middle East	0.51641	0.65690	0.65723
North America	0.66743	0.56634	0.46509
World	0.54495	0.54868	0.48058

European Trends & Global Outlook

In Europe, total CO₂ emissions from energy use were 5% below 1990 levels in 2007, with CO₂ intensity decreasing more rapidly than energy intensity. However, recent IPCC reports indicate a rapid escalation in global emissions, reaching 59 gigatonnes in 2019, an increase of about 2.1% annually compared to the previous decade. To achieve the EU's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030, energy investment must double to over €400 billion annually, focusing on energy efficiency, power networks, and renewable energy facilities. A 2024 report shows renewable energy production reaching 50% of the energy mix, signaling progress.

Emission Factor Reporting

Greenhouse Gas Inventories

A primary application of emission factors is in the reporting of national greenhouse gas inventories under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC are mandated to annually report their national total GHG emissions using formalized formats. The IPCC's "Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories" and the "2006 IPCC Guidelines" serve as the accepted methodologies, ensuring transparency, completeness, consistency, comparability, and accuracy. The IPCC Emission Factor Database provides default factors, though country-specific factors are considered "good practice" for major emission sources to enhance accuracy.

Air Pollutant Inventories

For air pollutant inventory reporting, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and the EU National Emission Ceilings Directive (2016) require countries to produce annual national inventories under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP). The European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) Task Force of the European Environment Agency has developed specific methods and emission factors, published in the EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook, to guide these reporting efforts.

Intensity Targets & Fuel Composition

The intrinsic composition of fuels directly influences their emission intensity. Coal, being predominantly carbon, releases a substantial amount of CO₂ upon combustion, thus possessing a high CO₂ emission intensity. Natural gas, primarily methane (CH₄), contains four hydrogen atoms for every carbon atom. This higher hydrogen-to-carbon ratio means that when natural gas burns, it produces water vapor in addition to CO₂, resulting in a comparatively lower CO₂ emission intensity than coal.

Global Oil Carbon Intensity

Well-to-Refinery Analysis

A significant study published in Science by Masnadi et al. (2018) utilized open-source modeling tools to assess the well-to-refinery carbon intensity (CI) of all major active oil fields globally. This research, conducted by Stanford University, aimed to identify the primary drivers of these emissions across 90 countries with the largest crude oil footprints. The findings revealed a highly skewed pattern of carbon intensity, with Chinese oil fields, for example, emitting between 1.5 and over 40 grams of CO₂ equivalent per megajoule, with approximately 90% of fields falling within the 1.5–13.5 g CO₂e range. This underscores the necessity of disaggregating seemingly homogeneous emission activities and considering numerous factors for a comprehensive understanding.

Canadian Crude Oil Context

The 2018 Science study highlighted that Canadian crude oil ranks as the fourth-most greenhouse gas (GHG) intensive in the world, trailing only Algeria, Venezuela, and Cameroon. This finding emphasizes the varying environmental footprints associated with crude oil production across different regions, influenced by factors such as extraction methods, energy inputs, and the specific characteristics of the oil reserves. Such detailed analyses are crucial for informing policy and investment decisions aimed at reducing the carbon intensity of global energy supplies.

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References

Calculation of carbon intensity in 2012 kbb.sk, Slovakia

Nowtricity 2024 yearly report

EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook.eea.europa.eu, 2016, retrieved 13.7.2018

TFEIP, 2008-03-15 tfeip-secretariat

A full list of references for this article are available at the Emission intensity Wikipedia page

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Deciphering Emissions

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining Emission Intensity 💡

⚖️ The Core Concept

🔢 Emission Factors and CIPK

📊 Economic and Energy Context

Methodological Approaches 🔬

🔄 Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA)

🛣️ Well-to-Wheels (WTW) Analysis

🧩 Hybrid and Contextual Methods

Estimating Emissions ➕

formulae The Emission Factor Model

✅ High Certainty Emissions

❓ Variable Certainty Emissions

Electric Generation Emissions ⚡

🌐 Global Energy Footprints

Lifecycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Electricity Source (IPCC, 2011)

🔥 Fuel-Specific Emission Factors

Emission Factors of Common Fuels

Regional Carbon Intensity 🗺️

📈 GDP Intensity (MER)

Carbon Intensity of GDP, Measured in MER (Metric tons of CO2 per thousand year 2005 US dollars)

💰 GDP Intensity (PPP)

Carbon Intensity of GDP, Measured in PPP (Metric tons of CO2 per thousand year 2005 US dollars)

🎯 European Trends & Global Outlook

Emission Factor Reporting 📝

🌿 Greenhouse Gas Inventories

💨 Air Pollutant Inventories

⚙️ Intensity Targets & Fuel Composition

Global Oil Carbon Intensity 🛢️

🗺️ Well-to-Refinery Analysis

🇨🇦 Canadian Crude Oil Context

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Emission Intensity

The Core Concept

Emission Factors and CIPK

Economic and Energy Context

Methodological Approaches

Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Well-to-Wheels (WTW) Analysis

Hybrid and Contextual Methods

Estimating Emissions

The Emission Factor Model

High Certainty Emissions

Variable Certainty Emissions

Electric Generation Emissions

Global Energy Footprints

Fuel-Specific Emission Factors

Regional Carbon Intensity

GDP Intensity (MER)

Carbon Intensity of GDP, Measured in MER (Metric tons of CO₂ per thousand year 2005 US dollars)

GDP Intensity (PPP)

Carbon Intensity of GDP, Measured in PPP (Metric tons of CO₂ per thousand year 2005 US dollars)

European Trends & Global Outlook

Emission Factor Reporting

Greenhouse Gas Inventories

Air Pollutant Inventories

Intensity Targets & Fuel Composition

Global Oil Carbon Intensity

Well-to-Refinery Analysis

Canadian Crude Oil Context

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice