Gastronomic Chronicles
Delving into the historical evolution and cultural tapestry of England's culinary heritage, from medieval banquets to modern gastronomic innovations.
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Introduction to English Cuisine
A Distinctive Yet Integrated Culinary Tradition
English cuisine, while possessing its own unique characteristics, is deeply intertwined with the broader British culinary landscape. Its evolution has been significantly shaped by historical factors, including the extensive import of ingredients and innovative ideas from the Americas, China, and India during the British Empire, and further influenced by post-World War II immigration. This continuous absorption of global culinary concepts has enriched its distinctive attributes.
Ancient Roots and Enduring Staples
Many traditional English dishes boast ancient origins, tracing back centuries. Staples such as bread and cheese, various roasted and stewed meats, hearty meat and game pies, simply boiled vegetables and broths, and both freshwater and saltwater fish have been integral to the English diet for a considerable time. Evidence of these culinary practices can be found in historical texts, such as the 14th-century English cookbook, The Forme of Cury, which originated from the royal court of King Richard II.
Global Palate, Local Adaptation
The English kitchen has consistently embraced foreign ingredients and cooking methodologies since the Middle Ages. Curry, for instance, was introduced from the Indian subcontinent and adapted to English palates as early as the eighteenth century, notably with Hannah Glasse's recipe for chicken "currey." French cuisine also exerted a profound influence throughout the Victorian era. Following the austerity of wartime rationing, Elizabeth David's 1950 publication, A Book of Mediterranean Food, sparked a widespread appreciation for Mediterranean flavors. This success encouraged subsequent culinary writers to explore and popularize other international styles, including Chinese and Thai cuisines, demonstrating England's ongoing receptiveness to global gastronomic trends.
Historical Trajectories
Centuries of Culinary Evolution
English cooking boasts a rich developmental history spanning many centuries, with documented practices dating back to at least the late 14th century. This extensive timeline reveals a dynamic culinary tradition that has continuously adapted, innovated, and integrated diverse influences, shaping the distinctive character of English food.
The Dawn of Cookery Literature
The emergence of printed cookery books marked a significant turning point in English culinary history. While early publications often compiled existing medieval texts, they gradually evolved to offer new recipes and advice, democratizing culinary knowledge beyond aristocratic circles and influencing household management across various social strata.
A Palate Shaped by Empire
The British Empire played a pivotal role in introducing a wealth of new ingredients and culinary concepts to England. From spices and exotic fruits to staple beverages like tea and coffee, these imports profoundly transformed the national diet, integrating foreign elements so thoroughly that their origins eventually became an intrinsic part of English culinary identity.
Medieval Gastronomy
The Forme of Cury: A Culinary Window
English cooking traditions extend back to at least the era of The Forme of Cury, a significant cookbook compiled around 1390 during the reign of King Richard II. This manuscript reveals a sophisticated approach to medieval cuisine, far removed from simplistic notions of large roasted meat portions. It features imaginative recipes utilizing a rich array of seasonings, including nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, and cloves.
Complex Flavors and Textures
Medieval English dishes frequently showcased spicy sweet and sour sauces, often thickened with bread or finely ground almonds (boiled, peeled, and dried). Confectioneries like gingerbread were also described. Contrary to popular misconceptions, many dishes had a purée-like consistency, often containing small fragments of meat or fish. Approximately 48% of recipes in the Beinecke manuscript, for instance, are stews or purées. These could be acidic (with wine, vinegar, spices), sweet and sour (with sugar and vinegar), or purely sweet (using expensive sugar).
Exotic Ingredients and Elaborate Preparations
An illustrative sweet purée dish from the Beinecke manuscript is "mortruys," a rich, saffron-yellow concoction thickened with egg, made from capon and pork. Another manuscript, Utilis Coquinario, details dishes such as "pyany" (poultry garnished with peonies), "hyppee" (a rose-hip broth), and the preparation of birds like cormorants and woodcocks, highlighting the diverse and sometimes exotic ingredients of the era.
Tudor Transformations
The Rise of Printed Cookery Books
The early modern period witnessed the gradual proliferation of printed cookery books. Richard Pynson's 1500 Boke of Cokery, though a compilation of medieval texts, marked an important beginning. Subsequent publications like A Proper Newe Booke of Cokerye (post-1545) and The Secretes of the Reverende Maister Alexis of Piermont (1558, translated from Italian confectionery works) expanded the culinary literature. By the end of the century, titles like Thomas Dawson's The Good Huswifes Jewell (1585) and John Partridge's The Good Hous-wives Handmaide (1594) became popular, catering to aristocratic ladies with "secrets" on confectionery and health, and to women of more ordinary means with advice on household management and cookery.
Evolving Flavors: Butter and Herbs
English culinary tastes underwent significant shifts during the sixteenth century. Recipes began to emphasize a balanced interplay of sweet and sour flavors. Butter emerged as a crucial ingredient in sauces, a trend that would continue for centuries. Notably, locally grown herbs started to supplant more expensive imported spices as primary flavorings, a departure from medieval practices. For instance, A. W.'s Book of Cookrye shows 35% of meat stew and sauce recipes incorporating herbs, particularly thyme, though 76% still retained the medieval combination of sugar and dried fruit.
New World Imports and Culinary Showmanship
The sixteenth century also saw the introduction of new ingredients from distant lands. The Good Huswifes Jewell, for example, featured sweet potatoes from the tropical Americas alongside traditional medieval recipes. Elinor Fettiplace's 1604 Receipt Book offers a glimpse into Elizabethan cookery, including recipes for buttered loaves, apple fritters, preserves, and a celebration cake for 100 people. It also highlights the use of newly available citrus fruits, such as oranges and lemons, in dishes like dressing a shoulder of mutton. Pies were not only a staple food but also elaborate centerpieces, as famously alluded to in the nursery rhyme "Sing a Song of Sixpence," where live birds were sometimes placed under the crust for dramatic effect at banquets.
Stuart Era Innovations
Markham's Influence on Household Cookery
Gervase Markham's The English Huswife, published in 1615, became the bestselling cookery book of the early seventeenth century. Its recipes, likely originating from an earlier noblewoman's collection, reflected Elizabethan culinary styles. This period marked a growing trend of women both writing and reading cookery books, despite relatively low literacy rates. Markham's recipes notably diverged from medieval ones, with three-quarters of his meat sauces and pies featuring a sweet and sour balance. He famously advised adjusting broths: "When a broth is too sweet, to sharpen it with verjuice, when too tart to sweet it with sugar, when flat and wallowish to quicken it with orenge and lemmons, and when too bitter to make it pleasant with hearbes and spices."
Robert May and French Culinary Trends
Robert May's The Accomplisht Cook, released in 1660, was another seminal work. Published when May was 72, it contained a substantial collection of recipes for soups and stews, 38 different preparations for sturgeon, and a wide variety of pies with fish, meat (including the elaborate battalia pie), and sweet fillings. French culinary influence became increasingly apparent, as seen in Hannah Woolley's The Cooks Guide (1664). Woolley's recipes aimed to enable non-aristocratic readers to emulate fashionable French cooking, incorporating elaborate sauces, claret wine, and anchovies alongside traditional English ingredients like sugar, dried fruit, and vinegar.
The Philosophical Significance of Salads
In 1699, John Evelyn published Acetaria: A Discourse of Sallets, considered the first book dedicated to salads. This work delved into the philosophical implications of salads, reflecting 17th-century beliefs that spiritual purity could be achieved through a deeper understanding of nature. Evelyn and his contemporaries viewed Adam's wisdom as a model for enlightenment, inspiring early forms of vegetarianism and meticulous gardening practices, underscoring a connection between diet, nature, and intellectual thought.
Georgian Era Gastronomy
Systematizing Cookery and Budget-Friendly Options
John Nott's The Cooks and Confectioners Dictionary (1723) introduced an innovative alphabetical arrangement for its recipes, covering everything from soups and salads to meats, fish, pastries, confectionery, and beverage making (beer, cider, wine). It also provided monthly bills of fare. Later in the century, the anonymous Primitive Cookery (1767) advocated for economical, lacto-vegetarian dishes, though some meat recipes were still included, reflecting an early interest in more sustainable and affordable eating.
A Parson's Dinner: A Glimpse into Prosperity
James Woodforde's Diary of a Country Parson offers invaluable insights into the dining habits of reasonably prosperous English households in the eighteenth century. For a dinner on June 8, 1781, he recorded a lavish meal featuring boiled chicken and tongue, boiled leg of mutton with capers, batter pudding, roasted ducks with green peas, artichokes, tarts, and blancmange. The meal concluded with almonds, raisins, oranges, strawberries, and a selection of Mountain and Port wines, highlighting a diet rich in variety and seasonal produce.
Vegetable Integration and Culinary Bestsellers
Gilbert White's The Natural History of Selborne (1789) documented a notable increase in vegetable consumption among ordinary country people in southern England. He observed that potatoes, a New World import, had only recently become a dietary staple during the reign of King George III. Simultaneously, Hannah Glasse's The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy, published in 1747, became an unprecedented bestseller, dominating the cookery book market for a century with over 40 editions and numerous pirated versions, solidifying its place as a foundational text in English culinary history.
Victorian Culinary Era
Domestic Cookery for the Middle Classes
The 19th century saw English cooking codified and popularized for the burgeoning middle classes through influential cookbooks. Mrs. Rundell's A New System of Domestic Cookery (1806) achieved immense success, selling hundreds of thousands of copies across Britain and America through 67 editions by 1844. Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery for Private Families (1845) was lauded as "the greatest cookery book in our language" by Bee Wilson, offering sophisticated recipes like her "Quince Blanc-Mange (Delicious)," which involved dissolving isinglass in quince juice, adding sugar, and stirring it into thick cream.
Beeton, Francatelli, and French Haute Cuisine
Isabella Beeton's Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management (1861) became the definitive Victorian cookery manual, selling nearly two million copies by 1868. Unlike Acton's more narrative style, Beeton's was a practical instruction guide, though it notably plagiarized from earlier authors. Concurrently, the Anglo-Italian chef Charles Elmé Francatelli gained celebrity status, serving aristocrats, London clubs, and Queen Victoria. His 1846 work, The Modern Cook, saw 29 editions by 1896, popularizing an elaborate cuisine rich in French terminology and offering extensive bills of fare for grand occasions.
The Rise of Global Beverages
By Victorian times, three major hot beverages—tea, coffee, and chocolate—all originating outside Europe, had become staple items. Tea, introduced by Catherine of Braganza around 1660, gradually became widespread as its price dropped. Coffee, popular since the 17th century, thrived in coffee houses, with the first opening in Oxford in 1650. Hot chocolate was also a favored drink. The development of chocolate bars was pioneered by English Quaker-founded businesses: Joseph Fry's (1847), Rowntree's (1862), and Cadbury's (1868), transforming chocolate from a drink to a widely consumed food item.
Twentieth Century & Beyond
Post-War Convenience and Global Imports
Following the First World War, the English household saw an influx of new food products, with branded, convenient foods replacing time-consuming homemade custards and puddings. American-style dry cereals challenged traditional breakfasts, and global imports of fruits, improved packaging, and refrigeration expanded choice. Authors like Lady Sysonby in the 1930s began incorporating recipes from a wide array of countries, reflecting a growing international palate.
Wartime Austerity and Culinary Ingenuity
Rationing, implemented in 1940 due to wartime blockades, drastically altered the national diet. Luxuries like bananas and chocolate became scarce, while unfamiliar items such as dried egg, dried potato, whale meat, snook (a South African fish), and Spam became common. With butter, sugar, eggs, and flour rationed, traditional English dishes were challenging to prepare. Carrots, for instance, were creatively used in dishes like carrot fudge to provide natural sweetness. Paradoxically, this period of austerity led to a healthier population overall. Home economists like Marguerite Patten, who later became a pioneering television cook, taught economical cooking methods, selling 17 million copies of her 170 books.
Elizabeth David's Culinary Revolution
Elizabeth David's 1950 book, A Book of Mediterranean Food, profoundly reshaped English cooking. Published during a time of scarcity, its evocative prose and practical insights into Mediterranean home cooking, based on David's direct experience, inspired a generation. Her work dismantled the mystique of "Grand Cuisine" and paved the way for other cookery writers to introduce foreign recipes. This era also saw the rise of celebrity chefs like Philip Harben, Fanny Cradock, Graham Kerr, and Robert Carrier, who further diversified the culinary landscape.
English Culinary Staples
The Canonical British Diet
In 1953, Philip Harben, Britain's first celebrity chef, published Traditional Dishes of Britain, listing what he considered the "stereotypical stalwarts of the British diet." These included Cornish pasties, crumpets, Yorkshire pudding, shortbread, Lancashire hotpot, steak and kidney pudding, jellied eels, clotted cream, and fish and chips. Harben, despite acknowledging Britain's perceived poor food reputation, asserted the technical prowess of its cooks and the vastness of its national dish repertoire.
Evolving Perceptions of "National" Food
Sociologist Bob Ashley observed in 2004 that while a "full English breakfast," roast beef, tea with scones, and fish and chips were considered core national dishes, few people regularly consumed all of them, or even any of them. He noted that the national diet is dynamic, with foreign-origin dishes routinely appearing in cookbooks. Intriguingly, a National Trust café, despite a policy against "foreign food," served curry, acknowledging its integration into English culinary identity since the eighteenth century.
A Timeline of Iconic Dishes
Many English dishes have specific origins or evolved gradually over time. Piccalilli, for instance, was introduced from India in the 18th century, with Hannah Glasse providing a recipe in 1758. Conversely, dishes like fish in sweet and sour sauce, often considered foreign, have been present in English recipe books since the Middle Ages. The "full English breakfast" also developed incrementally, with variations described in later editions of Mrs. Beeton's book. Below is a table illustrating the approximate introduction or popularization dates of several familiar English dishes:
Global Culinary Influences
Ancient Spice Routes and Flavor Profiles
English cookery has been demonstrably open to international influences since at least the thirteenth century, with some foods like sausages tracing back to Roman times. Historical records show figures like the Countess of Leicester purchasing large quantities of cinnamon, and King Edward I ordering significant amounts of pepper, ginger, and expensive imported sugar. Clarissa Dickson Wright challenges the notion that spices were used to mask spoiled meat, arguing instead that they served to counteract the taste of salt, a primary food preservative before refrigeration.
Debating Culinary Origins
The origins of seemingly quintessential English dishes have been a subject of debate. Fanny Cradock controversially asserted that "The English have never had a cuisine. Even Yorkshire pudding comes from Burgundy." However, a recipe for "a dripping pudding" was published in a 1737 English book. Nicola Humble noted that Mrs. Beeton's cookbook featured as many recipes from India as from Wales, Scotland, and Ireland combined. Panikos Panayi sparked debate by presenting evidence that fish and chips have foreign origins—fried fish from Jewish cooking and potato chips from France—only becoming a symbol of national identity around 1930. French cuisine, in particular, exerted a powerful influence throughout the nineteenth century and continues to do so through contemporary chefs.
The Enduring Legacy of Empire
The British Empire played a crucial role in integrating foreign foods into the English diet. Curry, for example, emerged from the British presence in India in the seventeenth century, initially as a spicy sauce to enhance bland meats. Hannah Glasse's 1748 recipe for "To make a currey the Indian way" flavored chicken with onions, turmeric, ginger, and pepper, stewed with cream and lemon juice. This adaptation of Indian cooking continued for centuries, with Anglo-Indian recipes sometimes diverging from traditional Indian dietary rules. James Walvin's Fruits of Empire highlights how potatoes, sugar, tea, and coffee became so deeply embedded in British life between 1660 and 1800 that their exotic origins were largely forgotten, becoming "part of the unquestioned fabric of local life."
Indian & Anglo-Indian Cuisine
From Raj to Restaurant: Early Adaptations
During the British Raj, Britain began to adopt Indian dishes, giving rise to Anglo-Indian cuisine. Early examples include kedgeree (1790) and Mulligatawny soup (1791). Indian food was available in coffee houses from 1809 and was cooked at home, as evidenced by cookbooks of the era. The Veeraswamy restaurant, opened in London in 1926, initially served Anglo-Indian fare and remains Britain's oldest surviving Indian restaurant. The mid-20th century saw a significant increase in curry houses, with another surge in the 1970s.
The Rise of the Curry House Phenomenon
The post-colonial British Indian dish, chicken tikka masala, is believed to have originated in Glasgow in the early 1970s and is now widely considered a "true British national dish." Balti cuisine was introduced to Birmingham in 1977. By 2003, Britain boasted approximately 9,000 Indian restaurants, predominantly run by entrepreneurs of Bangladeshi and Pakistani origin, generating £3.2 billion annually and serving 2.5 million customers weekly. While the number of restaurants peaked around 12,000 in 2015, it has since seen a slight decrease.
Culinary Refinement and Authenticity
Traditional Indian restaurants in Britain often allow diners to customize dishes by combining base ingredients (chicken, prawns, lamb) with various curry sauces, from mild korma to fiery phall, often without strict adherence to authentic combinations. The Madras curry sauce, named after the spice-sourcing region, serves as a common flavor benchmark. However, the quality of Indian cuisine in Britain has evolved significantly. Pioneers like the Bombay Brasserie (1982) and Chutney Mary (1990) introduced more authentic Indian flavors. By 2001, London's Tamarind and Zaika earned Michelin stars, signaling a new era of high-quality Indian gastronomy. Indian cuisine remains the most popular alternative to traditional English cooking, followed by Chinese and Italian.
Southeast & East Asian Cuisines
Chinese Cuisine's Establishment
Chinese cuisine became firmly established in England by the 1970s, with major cities often featuring vibrant Chinatown districts. London's Soho Chinatown, for instance, developed between the two world wars, building upon earlier informal Chinese communities in areas like Limehouse. The food served in these Chinese restaurants, largely derived from Cantonese cuisine, has been adapted over time to cater to English tastes, creating a unique British Chinese culinary style.
Expanding Asian Palates
From approximately 1980 onwards, other Southeast and East Asian cuisines began to gain significant popularity across England. Thai and Vietnamese cuisines, in particular, saw a surge in demand, introducing new flavor profiles, ingredients, and cooking techniques to the British public and further diversifying the nation's gastronomic landscape.
European Culinary Influences
The Italian Renaissance in England
Italian cuisine stands as the most popular Mediterranean culinary tradition in England. Its modern resurgence, significantly inspired by Elizabeth David's post-1945 writings, began with the emergence of Italian coffee bars after World War II. These establishments, the first to openly embrace their Italian identity, quickly started offering simple, affordable Italian fare such as minestrone soup, spaghetti, and pizza. By the early 1960s, more refined trattoria restaurants introduced "Italian specialities" like lasagne verdi al forno, further embedding Italian flavors into the English palate.
Diverse Mediterranean Flavors
Beyond Italy, other Mediterranean cuisines have also left their mark on English dining. Greek dishes such as moussaka, feta cheese, and taramasalata have found a place. Turkish influences are evident in the popularity of doner and shish kebabs, while Middle Eastern staples like hummus have become widely consumed, reflecting a broad appreciation for the diverse culinary traditions of the Mediterranean and beyond.
French Haute Cuisine and Bistro Charm
French cuisine in England is largely associated with high-end restaurants, though a growing number of more accessible French bistros also exist. Historically, English writers like Hannah Glasse in the 18th century and Andrew Kirwan in the 19th century expressed mixed feelings about French cooking. Nevertheless, restaurants specializing in French haute cuisine began to cater to England's upper and middle classes from the 1830s. The recruitment of Auguste Escoffier by the Savoy Hotel in 1890 marked a significant moment, and Marcel Boulestin's 1923 book, Simple French Cooking for English Homes, played a crucial role in popularizing French dishes among a wider audience.
English Food Establishments
Cafes and Tea Shops
The traditional English cafe, often an inexpensive eating spot, historically served working men with fried or grilled foods such as fried eggs, bacon, bangers and mash, black pudding, bubble and squeak, burgers, sausages, mushrooms, and chips. These "breakfast" items are often available all day. While fast-food chains have led to a decline in traditional cafes, they remain prevalent across the UK. Tea shops, on the other hand, offer soft drinks and light meals in a more sedate setting, famously serving cream tea in Cornish or Devonshire style, complete with scones, clotted cream, and jam, typically presented on china sets.
The Enduring Fish and Chip Shop
Fish and chips, a hot dish of battered fish (commonly Atlantic cod or haddock) and chips (French fries), is a quintessential English take-away food. Its origins can be traced to Western Sephardic Jews who settled in England from the 16th century, preparing fried fish similar to pescado frito. Chips emerged in the Victorian era, with Charles Dickens mentioning "husky chips of potatoes, fried with some reluctant drops of oil" in 1859. In the 1920s, fish and chip shops were often run by Jewish or Italian proprietors. Despite its foreign origins, the dish became a symbol of national identity, with The Times noting in 1871 that "potatoes chipped and fried in the French manner were introduced in Lancashire with great success."
Pub Food: From Snacks to Gastronomy
The English public house, or pub, is a renowned institution. In the mid-20th century, pubs primarily focused on drinks, offering minimal "bar snacks" like pork scratchings, pickled eggs, crisps, and peanuts to encourage beer sales. Basic cold meals, such as the 1950s-invented ploughman's lunch, were also available. The 1960s saw the rise of "chicken in a basket" – roast chicken with chips served in a wicker basket. While quality sometimes suffered with the advent of microwave and freezer foods, "pub grub" expanded to include British classics like steak and kidney pudding, shepherd's pie, fish and chips, bangers and mash, Sunday roast, and pasties. The 21st-century gastropub movement has elevated pub dining, focusing on restaurant-quality food prepared from fresh ingredients, with some establishments, like The Hand & Flowers in Marlow, earning Michelin stars. Pubs' share of meals eaten outside the home dramatically increased from 9.1% in 1964 to 37.5% by 1997.
The Rise of Vegetarianism
Founding Modern Vegetarianism
Modern Western vegetarianism has its roots in the United Kingdom, where the world's first Vegetarian Society was founded in 1847. Since the end of World War II, the movement has seen a marked increase in adherents. By 2003, the UK was home to between 3 and 4 million vegetarians, representing one of the highest percentages in the Western world. Additionally, approximately 7 million people reported abstaining from red meat, indicating a significant shift in dietary preferences.
Contemporary Vegan and Vegetarian Dining
The growth of plant-based diets continues to influence the English culinary scene. A 2015 study by the Vegan Society found that 11 out of 22 restaurant chains offered at least one vegan main course, though only six explicitly labeled them as such. While top-tier vegetarian restaurants remain relatively niche, their numbers are rapidly increasing, rising from around 20 in Britain in 2007 to 30 by 2010, reflecting a growing demand for sophisticated plant-based dining experiences.
Quality and Reputation
Challenging a Poor International Reputation
For much of the twentieth century, English cuisine suffered from a poor international reputation, often perceived as bland and uninspired. However, this overlooks a rich history: English food has utilized spices extensively since the Middle Ages, introduced curry to Europe, and features robust flavorings like English mustard. The notion of dull dishes like roast beef is also misleading; this dish was highly prized both domestically and abroad, and its depiction by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting, O the Roast Beef of Old England, celebrated the superior quality of English cattle. While wartime shortages and rationing undeniably impacted the variety and flavor of English food in the 20th century, the nation's culinary scene has since recovered with increasing prosperity and access to diverse ingredients.
Modern Culinary Excellence
The 21st century has witnessed a remarkable resurgence in the quality and innovation of English cuisine. In 2005, Restaurant magazine's global survey of food critics recognized 14 British restaurants among the world's top 50. The Fat Duck in Bray, Berkshire, led by chef Heston Blumenthal, notably secured the number one spot, showcasing a pioneering approach to experimental gastronomy, such as his Scrambled Egg and Bacon Ice Cream. This elevation of London's best restaurants has firmly established the city as a leading international culinary hub, attracting top talent and diverse dining experiences.
Protected Status and Regional Delicacies
The commitment to culinary quality is further underscored by the rapid growth in the list of United Kingdom food and drink products with Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) status under European Union law. By 2015, 59 items, including Cornish sardines, Yorkshire Wensleydale cheese, Yorkshire forced rhubarb, Fenland celery, West Country lamb and beef, and traditional Cumberland sausage, were registered. An additional 13, such as Birmingham Balti, were awaiting approval. By 2016, England alone boasted 12 cheeses with PDO status, highlighting a strong emphasis on preserving and recognizing the unique heritage and quality of regional English food products.
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References
References
- In Charles Elmé Francatelli's The Modern Cook
- David, Elizabeth (1950). Book of Mediterranean Food. London: John Lehmann
- BBC: How Britain got the hots for curry
- Haute Cuisine: How the French Invented the Culinary Profession (Chapter 3), Amy B. Trubek, 2000
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