What is English literature, and how does it differ from British literature?

English literature refers to literature written in the English language originating from the English-speaking world. It is distinct from British literature, which specifically encompasses literature from Great Britain, though there is significant overlap, especially given the historical development of the English language and its global spread.

How did the English language evolve from its earliest forms to Middle English?

The English language began with Anglo-Frisian dialects brought by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the fifth century, known as Old English. Following the Norman Conquest in 1066, French became dominant in polite society, leading to a gradual transition of the Anglo-Saxon language into Middle English, which incorporated French influences.

What role did Geoffrey Chaucer play in the development of Middle English literature?

Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, was a pivotal figure in establishing the legitimacy of vernacular Middle English. His work demonstrated the literary potential of the language at a time when French and Latin were still the dominant literary languages in England.

What were the key factors that helped standardize the English language around the 15th and 16th centuries?

The standardization of the English language was aided by several factors, including the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1439, the widespread influence of the King James Bible (1611), and the linguistic changes brought about by the Great Vowel Shift.

Who is considered the greatest writer in the English language, and what is his global impact?

William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and one of the world's greatest dramatists. His plays have been translated into every living language and are performed more frequently than those of any other playwright, demonstrating his immense global impact.

How did the British Empire influence the spread of English literature globally?

The expansion of the British Empire from the late 16th to the early 18th centuries led to the global spread of the English language. This expansion facilitated the development of significant literary traditions in English in former colonies, including the United States, during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

What are the defining characteristics and genres of Old English literature?

Old English literature, also known as Anglo-Saxon literature, encompasses works written in Old English from around 450 to 1066. Its genres included epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, and riddles, with oral tradition playing a strong role in its performance.

What is the significance of Beowulf in Old English literature?

Beowulf is the most famous work in Old English and holds national epic status in England, despite its setting in Scandinavia. It is a heroic epic poem preserved in the Nowell Codex, with its composition dated between the 8th and early 11th centuries.

Which authors are known by name from the Old English period, and who are the most certain figures?

While most Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, twelve are known by name from medieval sources. The most certain figures known for their vernacular works are Caedmon, Bede, Alfred the Great, and Cynewulf.

How did the Norman Conquest impact the trajectory of English literature?

The Norman Conquest of 1066 led to French becoming the dominant language in courts and polite society, diminishing the prominence of Anglo-Saxon. This linguistic shift facilitated the transition from Old English to Middle English, a period marked by the mingling of Norman and native languages and literature.

What role did Wycliffe's Bible play in the development of Middle English literature?

Wycliffe's Bible, a series of translations into Middle English made between approximately 1382 and 1395, was instrumental in establishing English as a literary language. These translations also significantly inspired the Lollard movement, a pre-Reformation religious reform movement.

What were the primary forms of medieval theatre in England?

Medieval theatre in England included mystery plays, miracle plays, and morality plays (also known as interludes), which evolved from liturgical enactments. Mummers' plays, associated with folk tales and traditions like the Morris dance, were also a form of street theatre.

How did the English Renaissance influence literary styles and forms?

The English Renaissance, influenced by the Italian Renaissance, saw a flourishing of cultural and artistic movements. It led to innovations in poetry, such as the introduction of the sonnet by Wyatt and Surrey, and a greater emphasis on vernacular literature, partly due to the printing press.

What were the key poetic contributions during the Elizabethan period?

The Elizabethan period was marked by significant poetic works, including Edmund Spenser's epic allegory 'The Faerie Queene' and Sir Philip Sidney's sonnet sequence 'Astrophel and Stella'. The dissemination of printed literature also led to the popularity of song-like poems by authors like Thomas Campion.

Who were the major playwrights of the Elizabethan era, and what new genre emerged?

Key Elizabethan playwrights included Thomas Sackville, Thomas Norton, and Thomas Kyd, whose 'The Spanish Tragedy' established the revenge play genre. William Shakespeare also rose to prominence during this era with his diverse range of histories, tragedies, and comedies.

What characterized Jacobean drama, and who were its prominent figures?

Jacobean drama continued the trends of the Elizabethan era, with Shakespeare writing his later tragedies and problem plays. Ben Jonson was a leading literary figure, known for his satirical comedies like 'Volpone', and playwrights like John Webster further developed the revenge tragedy genre.

Who were the Metaphysical poets of the early 17th century, and what were their stylistic hallmarks?

The Metaphysical poets of the early 17th century included John Donne, George Herbert, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, and Richard Crashaw. Their style was characterized by intellectual wit and the use of metaphysical conceits, which are unusual or far-fetched similes and metaphors.

What was the significance of the King James Bible in early 17th-century prose?

The King James Bible, published in 1611 after a massive translation project, was the most important prose work of the early 17th century. It became the standard Bible for the Church of England and represented a culmination of the tradition of Bible translation into English.

Who were the Cavalier poets, and what influenced their work?

The Cavalier poets, such as Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Carew, and Sir John Suckling, were supporters of King Charles I during the English Civil War. Their work was influenced by classical Roman authors like Horace, Cicero, and Ovid, and often featured allegory and classical allusions.

What major epic poem was published during the Restoration Age, and who authored it?

John Milton's epic poem 'Paradise Lost' was published in 1667 during the Restoration Age. Milton is considered one of the greatest English poets, and his works reflected his deep personal convictions and the political turbulence of his time.

How did John Dryden influence Restoration literature?

John Dryden was a dominant literary figure during the Restoration period, influencing poetry, criticism, translation, and drama. He established the heroic couplet as a standard form in English poetry and excelled in satiric verse with works like 'MacFlecknoe'.

What new prose genres began to emerge during the Restoration period?

During the Restoration period, alongside dominant Christian religious writing, the genres of fiction and journalism began to emerge. John Locke's philosophical works, such as his 'Two Treatises on Government', also significantly contributed to the prose of the era.

What characterized Augustan literature in the early 18th century?

Augustan literature, reflecting the Age of Enlightenment, emphasized rationalism, scientific approaches, and a secular worldview. Authors like Alexander Pope, James Thomson, and Edward Young produced works characterized by wit, satire, and a focus on reason and order.

How did the Licensing Act of 1737 affect English drama?

The Licensing Act of 1737 brought English theatres under stricter state control, leading to increased censorship. This act prompted some playwrights to shift their focus to writing novels, influencing the development of prose fiction.

Who are considered key figures in the emergence of the English novel during the 18th century?

Key figures in the emergence of the English novel include Daniel Defoe, known for 'Robinson Crusoe', and Henry Fielding, who satirized contemporary novels in works like 'Joseph Andrews'. Samuel Richardson's 'Pamela' and Tobias Smollett's 'Roderick Random' are also significant early novels.

What was the 'Age of Sensibility', and who was a central literary figure?

The Age of Sensibility, spanning the latter half of the 18th century, is also known as the 'Age of Johnson'. Samuel Johnson, a distinguished man of letters, was a central figure, renowned for his 'A Dictionary of the English Language', which profoundly impacted Modern English.

How did the American Revolution influence American literature?

The American Revolution led to the development of a distinct American literature that sought to establish a new national identity. Key figures like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine produced influential political writings and prose that shaped the burgeoning American spirit.

What were the main characteristics of European Romanticism, and when did it influence English literature?

Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement originating in Europe toward the end of the 18th century, characterized by a focus on emotion, individualism, and the sublime. It reached America in the early 19th century and significantly influenced English literature from approximately 1798 to 1837.

Who were the key poets of the early Romantic period in England?

The early Romantic poets included Robert Burns, William Blake, and the Lake Poets: William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Robert Southey. Walter Scott was also a highly famous poet during this time.

What distinguished the second generation of Romantic poets?

The second generation of Romantic poets, including Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats, continued the movement's themes while also exploring new directions. Byron was known for his wit and European influence, Shelley for his radicalism and lyrical poetry, and Keats for his sensuous imagery and exploration of beauty and transience.

What is the significance of 'Lyrical Ballads' in Romantic poetry?

'Lyrical Ballads', primarily by Wordsworth with contributions from Coleridge (including 'Rime of the Ancient Mariner'), is considered the first romantic manifesto in English literature. Its preface outlined the movement's emphasis on emotional expression and the common language of humanity.

How did Jane Austen's novels contribute to the transition from Romanticism to realism?

Jane Austen's novels, such as 'Pride and Prejudice' and 'Emma', critiqued the sentimental novels of the previous era and moved towards realism. While fundamentally comic, her plots highlighted societal dependencies, particularly women's reliance on marriage for social and economic security.

What were the defining features of American Romanticism?

American Romanticism, arriving in the early 19th century, shared European traits like moral enthusiasm, individualism, and an emphasis on intuition. It also posited that the natural world was inherently good, contrasting with corrupt human society, and saw the rise of Gothic literature with authors like Washington Irving and Edgar Allan Poe.

What characterized 'sage writing' during the Victorian era?

Sage writing emerged as a new literary genre in the Victorian era, where authors aimed to express profound notions about the world, human existence, and ethical living. Thomas Carlyle, John Ruskin, and Matthew Arnold were prominent figures in this movement, offering critiques and guidance on societal issues.

How did the novel become the leading literary genre in the Victorian era?

The novel rose to prominence in the Victorian era due to increased female readership and authorship, the popularity of monthly serialisation, and its capacity to address the social, political, and economic issues arising from industrialization. Authors like Charles Dickens and the Brontë sisters captured the public imagination.

Who were some of the most influential Victorian novelists, and what themes did they explore?

Influential Victorian novelists included Charles Dickens, known for his social satire in works like 'Oliver Twist'; the Brontë sisters, with 'Jane Eyre' and 'Wuthering Heights'; and George Eliot, celebrated for the literary realism of 'Middlemarch'. They often explored themes of industrialization, social inequality, and individual morality.

What marked the beginning of the modern fantasy genre in English literature?

The modern fantasy genre is generally considered to have begun with George MacDonald's works like 'The Princess and the Goblin' and 'Phantastes' in the mid-19th century. William Morris further developed the genre with his romances, regarded as the first works of high fantasy.

Who is credited with writing the first detective novel in English, and what was its title?

Wilkie Collins' epistolary novel 'The Moonstone', published in 1868, is generally considered the first detective novel in the English language.

What were the key developments in children's literature during the Victorian era?

Children's literature developed as a distinct genre, featuring internationally known works such as Lewis Carroll's 'Alice's Adventures in Wonderland' and Robert Louis Stevenson's 'Treasure Island'. Rudyard Kipling and Beatrix Potter also made significant contributions.

Who were the leading poets of the Victorian era, and what poetic form did they popularize?

The leading Victorian poets included Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Matthew Arnold. Robert Browning, in particular, perfected the dramatic monologue, a significant form of poetry during this period.

What was the nature of poetry in the late Victorian period, and what movements emerged?

In the late Victorian period, English poetry saw the influence of French Symbolism, leading to a decadent 'fin de siècle' phase. Movements like Aestheticism, associated with the 'Yellow Book' poets (Swinburne, Wilde), and the Rhymers' Club group (Dowson, Yeats) emerged.

Who were the most significant American poets of the 19th century, and how did their styles differ?

The most significant American poets of the 19th century were Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson. Whitman was a poetic innovator, using free-flowing verse in 'Leaves of Grass' to depict American democracy, while Dickinson, living a sheltered life, produced ingenious, psychologically penetrating poetry within formal structures.

What characterized Victorian drama, and how did it evolve?

Victorian drama saw a proliferation of farces, musical burlesques, and comic operas, notably those by Gilbert and Sullivan, which competed with Shakespearean plays. The theatre also experienced changes in audience size and play run lengths due to improved transport and urban development.

What was literary modernism, and what were its key influences in early 20th-century English literature?

Literary modernism emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction against Victorian certainty and rationalism, influenced by thinkers like Darwin, Freud, and Nietzsche, as well as continental art movements. It explored themes of disillusionment, fragmentation, and subjective experience.

Who were some of the major modernist writers in English literature in the early 20th century?

Major early modernist writers included Joseph Conrad ('Heart of Darkness'), W.B. Yeats, T.S. Eliot ('The Waste Land'), and D.H. Lawrence ('The Rainbow'). Virginia Woolf, with her stream-of-consciousness technique in novels like 'Mrs Dalloway', was also a key figure.

What is the significance of James Joyce's novel 'Ulysses'?

James Joyce's 'Ulysses', published in 1922, is considered a seminal work of modernist literature. It has been described as a demonstration and summation of the entire modernist movement, known for its experimental use of language and narrative techniques.

What literary developments occurred between the World Wars in England?

Between the World Wars, English literature saw the continuation of modernism, the rise of working-class novelists, and significant dystopian works like Aldous Huxley's 'Brave New World'. Writers like Graham Greene and Samuel Beckett also produced important novels and plays.

What is postmodern literature, and how does it relate to modernism?

Postmodern literature is seen as both a continuation of modernist experimentation (using fragmentation, paradox, etc.) and a reaction against modernist modernism's underlying Enlightenment ideas. It is characterized by a difficulty in precise definition but often involves skepticism towards grand narratives and objective truth.

Who are some prominent postmodern British novelists?

Prominent postmodern British novelists include Martin Amis, Pat Barker, Ian McEwan, and Julian Barnes. Scottish writers like James Kelman and Alasdair Gray also contributed significantly to this literary landscape.

What was 'Kitchen sink realism' in post-war British drama?

Kitchen sink realism, or 'kitchen sink drama', was a cultural movement in the late 1950s and early 1960s that depicted the domestic lives of the working class using social realism. Plays like John Osborne's 'Look Back in Anger' challenged the more traditional drawing-room plays of the era.

Which poets are associated with the 'Martian poetry' movement of the 1960s and 1970s?

The poets most closely associated with the 'Martian poetry' movement, which aimed to describe ordinary things in unfamiliar ways, are Craig Raine and Christopher Reid.

English Literature Wiki: The Literary Lexicon: A Journey Through English Letters

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Old English Literature (c. 450–1066)

Origins and Language

This foundational period encompasses literature written in Old English, originating from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Great Britain in the 5th century. The language itself evolved from a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects. The most celebrated work from this era is Beowulf, an epic poem deeply embedded in English national identity, despite its Scandinavian setting.

Key Genres and Forms

The surviving corpus includes diverse genres: epic poetry, hagiography (lives of saints), sermons, biblical translations, legal texts, chronicles, and riddles. The emphasis was often on oral performance, with many works intended for recitation.

Notable Works and Authors

Beyond Beowulf, works like Widsith offer glimpses into heroic traditions. Known authors are few, with figures like Cædmon (the earliest named English poet), Bede, Alfred the Great, and Cynewulf being significant contributors. The Ruthwell Cross and Franks Casket inscriptions also provide early examples of Old English poetry.

Key texts and their significance:

Beowulf: The quintessential Old English epic, exploring themes of heroism, fate, and loyalty.
Widsith: A poetic catalogue of heroic deeds and rulers, offering insights into early Germanic culture.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A vital historical record, providing a chronological account of Anglo-Saxon history.
The Battle of Maldon: An evocative poem celebrating Anglo-Saxon bravery against Viking invaders.
Cædmon's Hymn: One of the earliest surviving examples of Old English poetry, attributed to the cowherd poet Cædmon.

Middle English Literature (1066–1500)

Norman Influence and Linguistic Shift

The Norman Conquest of 1066 profoundly altered the English language and its literature. French became the language of the aristocracy, while English evolved through a gradual transition into Middle English. This period saw the mingling of Norman and Anglo-Saxon traditions, leading to a rich tapestry of dialects and literary expressions.

Vernacular Flourishing

Despite the dominance of French and Latin, English gradually reasserted itself as a literary language. The introduction of the printing press and the standardization of the Chancery dialect contributed to this resurgence. Geoffrey Chaucer, with The Canterbury Tales, stands as a pivotal figure, elevating vernacular Middle English.

Key Figures and Genres

This era produced significant works in religious literature, romances, and early forms of drama. William Langland's Piers Plowman, the anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and John Gower's multilingual works exemplify the period's literary achievements. Medieval theatre, including mystery and morality plays, also flourished.

Major literary contributions:

Geoffrey Chaucer: Celebrated for The Canterbury Tales, a masterpiece of narrative and characterization.
William Langland: Author of the allegorical Piers Plowman, a significant work of social commentary.
Pearl Poet: Credited with Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, a seminal Arthurian romance.
Wycliffe's Bible: A crucial translation that helped establish English as a literary language.
Medieval Theatre: Mystery plays (e.g., York cycle) and morality plays (e.g., Everyman) formed the basis of English drama.

The English Renaissance (1500–1660)

Cultural Rebirth and Humanism

The English Renaissance, mirroring the broader European movement, marked a period of intense cultural and artistic innovation. Influenced by Italian humanism, it saw a renewed interest in classical learning, leading to significant advancements in poetry, drama, and prose.

Elizabethan and Jacobean Drama

This era is synonymous with the golden age of English drama. Playwrights like Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson produced influential works, but William Shakespeare stands paramount. His vast oeuvre, spanning histories, tragedies, and comedies, remains unparalleled in its depth and impact.

Poetic Innovation

Poetry saw the introduction of the sonnet by Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. Edmund Spenser's epic allegorical poem, The Faerie Queene, is a monumental achievement. The Metaphysical poets, including John Donne and George Herbert, explored complex themes with intellectual wit and intricate conceits.

Highlights of the Renaissance period:

William Shakespeare: Master playwright and poet (Hamlet, Macbeth, Sonnets).
Edmund Spenser: Author of the epic The Faerie Queene.
Christopher Marlowe: Renowned playwright (Doctor Faustus).
Ben Jonson: Celebrated poet and playwright (Volpone).
Metaphysical Poets: John Donne, George Herbert, Andrew Marvell – known for intellectual depth.
King James Bible (1611): A monumental prose work that shaped the English language.

The Restoration Age (1660–1700)

Rebirth of Theatre and Satire

Following the Puritan Interregnum, the Restoration saw a dramatic resurgence of theatre, characterized by witty comedies and often scandalous content reflecting courtly life. Playwrights like William Wycherley and George Etherege captured the era's spirit of intrigue and social commentary.

Epic Poetry and Prose

John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost, published in 1667, stands as a towering achievement of the period, exploring profound theological and philosophical themes. Prose saw the development of journalism and early forms of fiction, alongside influential philosophical works by John Locke.

Dryden and the Age of Wit

John Dryden dominated the literary landscape, establishing the heroic couplet and excelling in satire with works like MacFlecknoe. His influence extended to literary criticism and drama, defining the era's intellectual and artistic discourse.

Key contributions of the Restoration period:

John Milton: Epic poet (Paradise Lost).
John Dryden: Poet, critic, playwright; master of satire and the heroic couplet.
Restoration Comedy: Witty and often risqué plays by Wycherley, Etherege, and Congreve.
John Locke: Influential philosopher (Two Treatises of Government).
John Bunyan: Religious writer (The Pilgrim's Progress).

Augustan Literature (1700–1745)

Age of Enlightenment and Reason

This period, often termed the Age of Enlightenment, emphasized reason, order, and classical ideals. Writers sought to emulate the clarity and balance of ancient Roman literature, reflecting a rational and scientific worldview.

Satire and Mock-Heroic

Satire flourished as a dominant mode, with Alexander Pope leading the charge. His masterful mock-heroic poems, The Rape of the Lock and The Dunciad, exemplify the era's wit, social critique, and formal elegance.

Rise of the Essay and Journalism

The periodical essay, popularized by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele through The Spectator, became a significant prose form. This era also witnessed the nascent stages of the English novel and the development of journalism.

Prominent Augustan writers:

Alexander Pope: Master satirist and poet (The Rape of the Lock, The Dunciad).
Jonathan Swift: Renowned satirist and prose writer (Gulliver's Travels, A Modest Proposal).
Joseph Addison & Richard Steele: Pioneers of the periodical essay (The Spectator).
Daniel Defoe: Early novelist (Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders).
Henry Fielding: Novelist and playwright, satirizing contemporary society.

Age of Sensibility (1745–1798)

Emphasis on Emotion and Sentiment

Shifting from the strict rationalism of the Augustan age, this period saw a growing appreciation for emotion, sentiment, and individual experience. The "novel of sensibility" emerged, exploring characters' inner lives and emotional responses.

Samuel Johnson and the Lexicon

Samuel Johnson, a central figure, profoundly influenced the era through his prolific writing, including his monumental A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), which standardized English vocabulary and orthography.

Literary Precursors to Romanticism

This era laid the groundwork for Romanticism, with poets like Thomas Gray and Edward Young exploring themes of mortality and the sublime. The Gothic novel also emerged, foreshadowing the Romantic fascination with mystery and the supernatural.

Key characteristics and figures:

Samuel Johnson: Lexicographer, essayist, critic (A Dictionary of the English Language).
Novel of Sensibility: Explored heightened emotions (e.g., Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy, Henry Mackenzie's The Man of Feeling).
Graveyard Poets: Explored themes of mortality (Thomas Gray, Edward Young).
Gothic Fiction: Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto initiated the genre.
Irish Authors: Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan contributed significantly to drama and prose.

Romanticism (1798–1837)

Nature, Emotion, and the Individual

Romanticism represented a profound reaction against the Enlightenment's rationalism, championing imagination, emotion, individualism, and the sublime beauty of nature. It celebrated subjective experience and the power of the individual spirit.

Revolutionary Spirit and Social Change

The era was deeply influenced by the French Revolution, fostering a spirit of political and social idealism among poets like Percy Bysshe Shelley. The Industrial Revolution's impact also fueled a critique of modernity and a yearning for simpler, more natural states.

Poetic Masters

This period produced some of England's most beloved poets. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in their Lyrical Ballads, articulated the movement's core tenets. Lord Byron, Shelley, and John Keats, the second generation, further expanded the boundaries of poetic expression.

Leading figures of the Romantic movement:

William Blake: Visionary poet and artist (Songs of Innocence and of Experience).
William Wordsworth: Poet of nature and memory (Lyrical Ballads, The Prelude).
Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Master of the supernatural and imaginative (The Rime of the Ancient Mariner).
Lord Byron: Charismatic poet known for his rebellious spirit (Don Juan).
Percy Bysshe Shelley: Radical poet and philosopher (Ode to the West Wind).
John Keats: Celebrated for his sensuous imagery and odes (Ode on a Grecian Urn).
Sir Walter Scott: Prolific author of historical romances.
Jane Austen: Novelist whose works bridge Romanticism and realism (Pride and Prejudice).

Victorian Literature (1837–1901)

Industrialization and Social Commentary

The Victorian era, marked by industrial expansion and significant social change, saw the novel rise to prominence. Authors grappled with issues of class, poverty, industrialization, and morality, often through detailed social realism.

The Dominance of the Novel

The novel became the leading genre, with serialized publications fueling its popularity. Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and the Brontë sisters produced enduring works that captured the complexities of Victorian life.

Sage Writers and Realism

Figures like Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin, known as "sage writers," offered profound social and philosophical commentary. Literary realism, exemplified by George Eliot and Thomas Hardy, provided nuanced portrayals of society and human psychology.

Key aspects of Victorian literature:

Charles Dickens: Master of social commentary and characterization (Oliver Twist, Bleak House).
William Makepeace Thackeray: Rival to Dickens, known for Vanity Fair.
Brontë Sisters: Emily (Wuthering Heights) and Charlotte (Jane Eyre) explored passion and social constraints.
George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans): Renowned for psychological depth and realism (Middlemarch).
Thomas Hardy: Explored rural life and fate (Tess of the d'Urbervilles).
Sage Writers: Thomas Carlyle, John Ruskin, Matthew Arnold offered philosophical insights.
Genre Development: Wilkie Collins (detective fiction), George MacDonald (fantasy), H.G. Wells (science fiction).

American Literature's Emergence

Post-Revolutionary Identity

Following the American Revolution, literature began to forge a distinct national identity. Early figures like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine contributed significantly through their writings on politics, self-improvement, and the formation of a new republic.

Romanticism and Transcendentalism

The European Romantic movement found fertile ground in America, inspiring Transcendentalists like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. This period saw the rise of uniquely American voices exploring nature, individualism, and social reform.

Realism and Distinctive Voices

By the mid-19th century, American literature gained international recognition with figures like Nathaniel Hawthorne (The Scarlet Letter) and Herman Melville (Moby-Dick). Later, Mark Twain revolutionized American prose with his use of vernacular language and regional dialects.

Milestones in American literature:

Early Voices: Benjamin Franklin (autobiography, aphorisms), Thomas Paine (political pamphlets).
Transcendentalism: Ralph Waldo Emerson (Nature), Henry David Thoreau (Walden).
Romantic Novelists: Nathaniel Hawthorne (The Scarlet Letter), Herman Melville (Moby-Dick).
Realism and Vernacular: Mark Twain (Adventures of Huckleberry Finn), Henry James (The Portrait of a Lady).
Early Women Writers: Susanna Rowson, Hannah Webster Foster explored societal themes.

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Carlyle, Thomas (1841). On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History. The Works of Thomas Carlyle in Thirty Volumes. Vol. 5. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (published 1903).

Carlyle, Thomas (1904). Critical and Miscellaneous Essays: Volume IV. The Works of Thomas Carlyle in Thirty Volumes. Vol. 29. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

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George Eliot, "Thomas Carlyle," George Eliot Archive, accessed 12 March 2022, https://georgeeliotarchive.org/items/show/96.

Carter, McRae, The Routledge History of Literature in English: Britain and Ireland (2001), p. 240

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Gravett, Sharon L. (1995). "Carlyle's Demanding Companion: Henry David Thoreau". Carlyle Studies Annual. 15: 21â31. JSTOR < 44946086<.

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A full list of references for this article are available at the English literature Wikipedia page

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🏞️ Nature, Emotion, and the Individual

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Old English Literature (c. 450–1066)

Origins and Language

Key Genres and Forms

Notable Works and Authors

Middle English Literature (1066–1500)

Norman Influence and Linguistic Shift

Vernacular Flourishing

Key Figures and Genres

The English Renaissance (1500–1660)

Cultural Rebirth and Humanism

Elizabethan and Jacobean Drama

Poetic Innovation

The Restoration Age (1660–1700)

Rebirth of Theatre and Satire

Epic Poetry and Prose

Dryden and the Age of Wit

Augustan Literature (1700–1745)

Age of Enlightenment and Reason

Satire and Mock-Heroic

Rise of the Essay and Journalism

Age of Sensibility (1745–1798)

Emphasis on Emotion and Sentiment

Samuel Johnson and the Lexicon

Literary Precursors to Romanticism

Romanticism (1798–1837)

Nature, Emotion, and the Individual

Revolutionary Spirit and Social Change

Poetic Masters

Victorian Literature (1837–1901)

Industrialization and Social Commentary

The Dominance of the Novel

Sage Writers and Realism

American Literature's Emergence

Post-Revolutionary Identity

Romanticism and Transcendentalism

Realism and Distinctive Voices

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Scholarly Notice