What was the Ethiopian Empire, and what territories did it encompass?

The Ethiopian Empire, also historically known as Abyssinia or simply Ethiopia, was a sovereign state that included the present-day territories of Ethiopia and Eritrea. It was a long-standing empire in the Horn of Africa, known for its ancient Christian heritage.

Who founded the Solomonic dynasty, and what lineage did he claim?

Yekuno Amlak founded the Solomonic dynasty around 1270 AD. He claimed to be a descendant of the last Aksumite king, Dil Na'od, and ultimately traced his lineage back to the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, a claim popularized in the 14th-century text *Kebra Nagast*.

What was the political situation in the Ethiopian Highlands before the rise of the Solomonic dynasty?

Before the Solomonic dynasty, the Ethiopian Highlands were ruled by the Zagwe Dynasty, who were Agaws from the Lasta region. This dynasty was often accused in ecclesiastical texts of not having a 'pure Solomonic' lineage and was considered by many Christians to be usurpers, despite their architectural achievements like the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela.

How did Yekuno Amlak come to power, and what was his relationship with the Orthodox Church?

Yekuno Amlak, an Amhara nobleman, rose to power in Bete Amhara with strong support from the Orthodox Church, to which he promised semi-independent status. He rebelled against the Zagwe king, defeating him at the Battle of Ansata, and subsequently seized the throne in 1270 AD.

What were Yekuno Amlak's foreign relations like during his reign?

Yekuno Amlak maintained friendly relations with Muslims, establishing close ties with the neighboring Makhzumi dynasty and making contact with the Rasulids in Yemen and the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate. He expressed intentions of friendly cooperation and described himself as a protector of Muslims in Abyssinia, while also being a devout Christian who ordered the construction of the church of Genneta Maryam.

What significant legal code was produced during the reign of Amda Seyon I?

During the reign of Amda Seyon I, the *Fetha Nagast*, or 'Law of the Kings,' was produced. This legal code, largely based on biblical principles, codified the legal and social ideas of the time and remained in use in Ethiopia until the early 20th century.

How did Amda Seyon I expand the Ethiopian Empire's territory and influence?

Amda Seyon I conducted numerous military campaigns in regions like Gojjam, Damot, and Eritrea. His most significant campaigns were against Muslim enemies to the east, which shifted the balance of power in favor of the Christians for two centuries, more than doubling the empire's size and establishing complete hegemony over the region.

What was the nature of the conflict between Amda Seyon I and the Mamluk Sultanate and Ifat Sultanate?

Around 1320, Amda Seyon I threatened to divert the Nile's flow in response to the Mamluk Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad's persecution of Copts in Cairo. When Haqq ad-Din I, Sultan of Ifat, imprisoned an Ethiopian envoy, Amda Seyon invaded Ifat, killed the sultan, sacked the capital, and ravaged Muslim territories. He later launched another campaign against Sabr ad-Din I, killing him and campaigning as far as Adal, Dawaro, and Bali.

Who succeeded Amda Seyon I, and how did he handle relations with the Egyptian Sultanate?

Newaya Krestos succeeded Amda Seyon I in 1344. He aggressively intervened when the Patriarch of Alexandria, Mark IV, was imprisoned by As-Salih Salih, the Sultan of Egypt, by imprisoning Egyptian merchants in his kingdom, forcing the Sultan to release the Patriarch.

How did Emperor Dawit I contribute to the 'golden age' of Solomonic Rule?

Emperor Dawit I, who reigned from 1382, declared the surrounding Muslims 'enemies of the Lord' and invaded the Ifat Sultanate after its ruler, Sa'ad ad-Din II, resisted Ethiopian hegemony. Dawit I's forces defeated and killed Sa'ad ad-Din II, captured Zeila, and converted ravaged mosques into churches, leading to a period of peace and stability that became known as a golden age for the Ethiopian Empire.

What were some of Emperor Zara Yaqob's key reforms and actions during his reign?

Emperor Zara Yaqob (1434–1468) launched campaigns against pagan worship and 'un-Christian practices,' centralized administration by replacing regional warlords with officials, and expanded his hegemony over Islamic territories. He also protested the persecution of Egyptian Copts and founded Debre Berhan after witnessing a miraculous light, building a church and an extensive palace there.

Who was Eleni of Ethiopia, and what role did she play in the Solomonic court?

Eleni of Ethiopia was one of Emperor Zara Yaqob's wives who was given the title of Queen Mother by his successor, Baeda Maryam I. She proved to be an effective member of the royal family, acting as a co-monarch during Baeda Maryam's reign and later serving as regent for her 7-year-old stepson, Eskender.

What led to the Adal Sultanate's major invasion of Ethiopia in the 16th century?

In 1527, Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi rose to power in the Adal Sultanate, stockpiled firearms and cannons from Arabia and the Ottoman Empire, and launched an invasion of Ethiopia in 1529. After an initial withdrawal, he returned two years later for a definitive invasion, burning churches, forcibly converting Christians, and massacring inhabitants.

How did Emperor Gelawdewos respond to the Adalite invasion, and what external aid did he receive?

Emperor Gelawdewos, who succeeded his father Lebna Dengel, rallied his forces to resist the Muslim invasion. In 1541, he received crucial aid from four hundred well-armed Portuguese musketeers who arrived in Massawa and helped defeat larger Adalite contingents. Despite a setback at Wofla, Gelawdewos, with Portuguese support, won a major victory at the Battle of Wayna Daga, leading to the collapse of the invasion force.

What was the fate of Emperor Gelawdewos?

Emperor Gelawdewos was killed in 1559 while attempting to invade the Adal Sultanate at the Battle of Fatagar. His severed head was subsequently paraded in Harar, the capital of Adal.

How did the Ottoman Empire impact Ethiopia during the early modern period?

The Ottoman Empire occupied parts of Ethiopia starting in 1557, establishing the Habesh Eyalet by conquering Massawa, the Empire's main port, and seizing Suakin. However, Emperor Sarsa Dengel's victory and sacking of Arqiqo in 1589 contained the Ottomans to a narrow coastal strip, though Ethiopia lost its direct access to the Red Sea.

What significant demographic and political changes occurred during the early modern period, alongside the Ottoman conflicts?

During the early modern period, Oromo migrations led to the movement of a large pastoral population from the southeastern provinces, causing the empire's organization to change and faraway provinces to gain more independence. This period also saw the Ottomans checked by Emperor Sarsa Dengel's military actions.

What was the Gondarine period, and what were its cultural achievements?

The Gondarine period began in the 1630s when Emperor Fasilides founded Gondar as a permanent capital. This era saw relative peace, successful integration of the Oromo people, and a flourishing of culture, including profound achievements in Ethiopian art and architecture, such as the Fasil Ghebbi royal complex and 44 churches around Lake Tana. Artworks included diptychs, triptychs, murals, and illuminated manuscripts, mostly with religious themes.

Who was Iyasu the Great, and what characterized his reign?

Iyasu the Great, who reigned from 1682 to 1706, oversaw a major period of consolidation for the Ethiopian Empire. His reign also involved dispatching embassies to European powers like Louis XIV's France and to Dutch India, indicating a period of increased international engagement.

Describe the 'Zemene Mesafint' period in Ethiopian history.

The 'Zemene Mesafint,' or 'Princes Era,' was a period from 1769 to 1855 characterized by political decentralization and numerous conflicts among regional warlords (Rases). During this time, the emperor held only limited power, primarily dominating the area around the capital of Gondar, leading to stagnation in society and culture, often fueled by religious strife.

Who ended the Zemene Mesafint, and what was his fate?

Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855–1868) ended the Zemene Mesafint, reunified the Empire, and led it into the modern period. He died during the British Expedition to Abyssinia in 1868, choosing suicide rather than surrender after the British campaign succeeded.

How did Emperor Yohannes IV expand the Empire, and against whom did he fight?

From 1874 to 1876, Emperor Yohannes IV re-expanded the Empire into Eritrea. His forces, led by Ras Alula, successfully fought and decisively defeated Egyptian forces in the Ethiopian-Egyptian War, notably at the Battle of Gundet in Hamasien.

What was Emperor Menelik II's role in shaping modern Ethiopia's territorial boundaries?

Emperor Menelik II, from his base in Addis Ababa, significantly expanded the empire's forces from the 1890s onwards, incorporating lands to the west, east, and south, including kingdoms like Kaffa, Welayta, and Harar. By 1898, these conquests resulted in the modern territorial boundaries of Ethiopia.

What was the outcome of the First Italo-Ethiopian War?

The First Italo-Ethiopian War, which began in 1895 after Menelik II repudiated a protectorate treaty, resulted in a decisive Ethiopian victory at the Battle of Adwa in 1896. This forced Italy to sign the Treaty of Addis Ababa, recognizing Ethiopia's independence and delineating Eritrea's borders. Ethiopia's military success was partly attributed to modern imported weaponry.

What was the significance of the Entoto Reforms mentioned in the context of the First Italo-Ethiopian War?

The Entoto Reforms provided the Ethiopian Military with modern rifles, which surprised Italian commanders during the First Italo-Ethiopian War, as some Ethiopian infantrymen possessed more advanced weaponry than their Italian counterparts. This modernization contributed to Ethiopia's decisive victory at the Battle of Adwa.

How did the Second Italo-Ethiopian War lead to the occupation of Ethiopia?

In 1935, Italian soldiers under Marshal Emilio De Bono initiated the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. Despite war crimes committed by both sides, including Italy's use of chemical weapons, Addis Ababa was occupied on May 5, 1936, leading to an Italian victory and the establishment of Italian East Africa, merging Ethiopia with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland.

Where did Emperor Haile Selassie go into exile after the Italian invasion?

After the Italian occupation of Addis Ababa on May 1, 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie traveled to Djibouti by train, then boarded a British ship to Jerusalem, where he spent time with Ethiopian monks. He later sought asylum in Bath, England, at Fairfield House, as his presence in London was deemed 'politically embarrassing' by British authorities.

How was Ethiopia's sovereignty restored during World War II?

During World War II, Italy declared war on the United Kingdom and France in June 1940. The British subsequently helped Haile Selassie organize his army in Sudan, and a military campaign launched in January 1941 drove the Italians out of Ethiopia, restoring Haile Selassie to the throne on May 5 of the same year.

What significant social reform did Haile Selassie implement after World War II?

On August 27, 1942, Haile Selassie abolished the legal basis of slavery throughout the Ethiopian Empire and imposed severe penalties, including death, for slave trading. This was a major step towards modernizing the country's social structure.

How did Eritrea become federated with Ethiopia after World War II?

After World War II, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 390 (V) on December 2, 1950, establishing the federation of Eritrea (a former Italian colony) into Ethiopia. Eritrea was granted its own constitution, parliament, and administration, while Ethiopia managed its finances, defense, and foreign policy.

What challenges did Haile Selassie face in implementing his modernization policies, particularly regarding taxation and land reform?

Haile Selassie's attempts to institute a progressive tax scheme in 1942 failed due to opposition from the nobility, resulting in only a flat tax that was later reduced. His efforts to reform land ownership and end feudalism were slow and met with resistance from the entrenched aristocracy and clergy, often shifting the tax burden back to the peasants.

How did Haile Selassie work to establish the autocephaly of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church?

Between 1941 and 1959, Haile Selassie sought to establish the independence of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which had historically been headed by a bishop (abuna) accountable to the Patriarchate in Egypt. After repeated appeals and threats to sever ties, Pope Kyrillos VI finally elevated the Abuna to Patriarch-Catholicos in 1959, granting the Ethiopian Church greater autonomy while maintaining affiliation with the Alexandrian Church.

What changes did the 1955 revised constitution introduce in Ethiopia?

During his Silver Jubilee in November 1955, Haile Selassie introduced a revised constitution that retained his effective power but extended political participation by making the lower house of parliament an elected body. This was part of broader modernization efforts, though it was criticized for reasserting monarchical power and maintaining peasant powerlessness.

What was the significance of the 1960 unsuccessful coup attempt against Haile Selassie?

The 1960 unsuccessful coup, staged by Imperial Guard forces while Haile Selassie was in Brazil, briefly proclaimed his son Asfa Wossen as emperor. Though crushed and lacking broad popular support, it was a pivotal moment, as it marked the first time Ethiopians questioned the king's power to rule without consent, leading to increased student and educated class advocacy for the peasantry and prompting Haile Selassie to accelerate reforms like land grants.

What was Haile Selassie's role in the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)?

In 1963, Haile Selassie presided over the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the precursor to the African Union, and its headquarters were established in Addis Ababa. He was elected as the OAU's first official chairperson and, alongside Modibo Keïta of Mali, helped negotiate the Bamako Accords to resolve the border conflict between Morocco and Algeria.

What factors contributed to the growing discontent and eventual fall of the monarchy in 1974?

The monarchy's fall was precipitated by the government's inadequate response to the 1973 Wollo famine, rising discontent among urban groups, and high fuel prices caused by the 1973 oil crisis. These issues led to a widespread revolt by the army and civilian populace in February 1974.

How did the Derg come to power and depose Emperor Haile Selassie?

In June 1974, a group of military officers formed the Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army, known as the Derg, to restore order amidst widespread mutiny. After gaining concessions from Haile Selassie to arrest officials, the Derg systematically dismantled the imperial government, deposed and imprisoned the Emperor on September 12, 1974, and formally abolished the monarchy in March 1975.

According to Bahrey, what were the ten social groups in feudal Ethiopia during the late 16th century?

According to the monk Bahrey's account from the late 16th century, the ten social groups in feudal Ethiopia included monks, debtera (ecclesiastical scribes/scholars), lay officials (including judges), men at arms protecting dignitaries' wives and princesses, shimaglle (lords and hereditary landowners), farm laborers or serfs, traders, artisans, wandering singers, and soldiers known as chewa.

What constituted the definite social classes in feudal Ethiopia, according to modern interpretation of Bahrey's account?

Based on a modern interpretation of Bahrey's account, the definite social classes in feudal Ethiopia were the shimaglle (lords and hereditary landowners), the serfs (farm laborers), the chewa (soldiers), the artisans, and the traders. Power was concentrated in the Emperor and the aristocrats he appointed, with the chewa serving as the instrument for enforcing this power.

What formed the backbone of the Ethiopian Empire's military forces from the reign of Amde Tseyon?

From the reign of Amde Tseyon, Chewa regiments, or legions, formed the backbone of the Ethiopian Empire's military forces. These regiments, known as *ṣewa* in Ge'ez and *č̣äwa* in Amharic, typically consisted of several thousand men.

How were Chewa regiments maintained and deployed in the Ethiopian Empire?

Each Chewa regiment was allocated a fief (Gult) to ensure its upkeep through land revenue. Emperor Zara Yaqob began garrisoning provinces with Chewa regiments after the Battle of Gomit in 1445, indicating a strategic deployment of these military units.

What were the major divisions of the Ethiopian military?

The major divisions of the Ethiopian military included regiments at the court, under high court officials; regiments in the provinces, under regional Rases or other officials; and regiments in border regions or more autonomous provinces like Hadiya, Bahir Negash, and Bale, which were under military officials appointed by the king, known as azmač.

When was the modern Ethiopian army created, and what was its initial component?

The modern Ethiopian army was created under Ras Tafari Makonnen in 1917, with the formation of the Kebur Zabagna, which served as the imperial guard.

What characterized the Ethiopian economy for centuries until the 20th century?

For centuries, the Ethiopian economy was based on a barter system with 'primitive money' and various forms of currency within a feudal framework. Peasants' activities were primarily focused on production and taxation, with limited marketing infrastructure.

What forms of currency were used in earlier periods of Ethiopian history?

In earlier periods of Ethiopian history, common currencies included essential items such as 'amole' (salt bars), pieces of cloth or iron, and later, cartridges. Gold cubes, potentially bearing official marks, and gold wedges were also used as standardized values for trade.

When was the first bank established in Ethiopia, and what was its role?

The first bank, the Bank of Abyssinia, was established in 1905 by Menelik II, following a concession from the British-occupied National Bank of Egypt. It monopolized government public funds, loans, banknote printing, coin minting, and other privileges, and expanded with branches in cities like Harar and Dire Dawa.

How did Emperor Haile Selassie attempt to modernize the Ethiopian economy?

To promote industrial and manufacturing expansion, Emperor Haile Selassie, with the assistance of the National Economic Council, initiated a development plan encompassing three Five-Years Master Plans from 1957 to 1974. This led to an annual GDP growth rate of 4.4% between 1960 and 1970, with significant increases in manufacturing, wholesale, retail trade, transportation, and communication sectors.

What was the primary driving force behind imperialism in the Ethiopian Empire, especially from Menelik II's reign?

As feudalism became a central tenet, land acquisition emerged as the main driving force behind imperialism in the Ethiopian Empire, particularly from the reign of Menelik II onwards, leading to an authoritarian system with institutionalized social inequality.

Abyssinian Majesty

Unveiling the Ethiopian Empire's Enduring Legacy: A Millennium of Sovereignty and Transformation.

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Introduction

A Millennium of Sovereignty

The Ethiopian Empire, historically recognized as Abyssinia, stood as a sovereign state encompassing the territories now known as Ethiopia and Eritrea. Its remarkable existence spanned from approximately 1270 AD, with the establishment of the Solomonic dynasty by Yekuno Amlak, until the 1974 coup d'état by the Derg, which brought an end to the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie. This enduring empire maintained a kingdom centered on its ancient Christian heritage, a testament to its resilience amidst often hostile regional dynamics.

Territorial Evolution

Under Emperor Menelik II in the late 19th century, the empire experienced significant territorial expansion towards the south, shaping much of its modern geographical footprint. Later, in 1952, Eritrea was federated under Emperor Haile Selassie's rule, further defining the empire's scope. This long history is marked by periods of both consolidation and expansion, reflecting a continuous effort to assert and maintain its influence in the Horn of Africa.

A Legacy of Resilience

The Ethiopian Empire's narrative is one of persistent self-determination. Despite being frequently encircled by adversarial forces, it successfully preserved its unique cultural and religious identity. Its ability to navigate centuries of regional conflicts, internal power struggles, and external imperial ambitions underscores its profound historical significance as one of Africa's longest-lasting independent states.

Dynastic Origins

From Aksum to Zagwe

Following the decline of the Kingdom of Aksum in the 10th century AD, the Ethiopian Highlands came under the dominion of the Zagwe Dynasty. These new rulers, originating from the Lasta region and belonging to the Agaw people, faced accusations in later ecclesiastical texts of lacking "pure Solomonic" lineage, often being regarded as usurpers by the Christian populace. Nevertheless, the Zagwe era is notable for its architectural achievements, particularly the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, which continued earlier Aksumite traditions.

The Solomonic Restoration

By the late 13th century, a pivotal shift occurred with the rise of Yekuno Amlak, an Amhara nobleman from Bete Amhara. With strong backing from the Orthodox Church, which he promised semi-independent status, and support from the neighboring Muslim Makhzumi dynasty, Yekuno Amlak successfully rebelled against the Zagwe king. His victory at the Battle of Ansata marked the end of the Zagwe Dynasty and the beginning of the Solomonic period in 1270 AD.

The Legend of Solomon and Sheba

Yekuno Amlak's claim to legitimacy was rooted in a legendary lineage tracing back to the last Aksumite king, Dil Na'od, and ultimately to the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. This canonical claim was extensively detailed in the 14th-century text, the Kebra Nagast. According to this narrative, the Queen of Sheba, believed to be from Aksum, bore a son, Menelik I, with King Solomon in Jerusalem. Menelik I and his descendants, including the Aksumite royal house, were said to have ruled Ethiopia until the Zagwe interregnum. Yekuno Amlak, as a purported direct descendant of Menelik I, was thus seen as restoring the rightful Solomonic line.

Early Diplomatic Engagements

Yekuno Amlak's reign was characterized by amicable relations with Muslim entities. He fostered close ties with the Makhzumi dynasty and established contact with the Rasulids in Yemen and the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate. In a letter to Mamluke Sultan Baybars, he expressed intentions for friendly cooperation and positioned himself as a protector of Muslims within Abyssinia. A devout Christian, he also commissioned the construction of the Genneta Maryam church, commemorating his work with an inscription acknowledging divine grace for his ascension to the throne.

Imperial Expansion

Amda Seyon's Formidable Campaigns

Emperor Amda Seyon I, who succeeded Wedem Arad, presided over a period of significant military expansion and administrative development. His reign saw the creation of detailed royal chronicles, providing an unbroken historical record of the medieval Horn of Africa. Crucially, the Fetha Nagast, or "Law of the Kings," a legal code largely based on biblical principles, was also composed during his time, codifying legal and social norms that persisted until the 20th century.

Amda Seyon I's military prowess was evident in his numerous campaigns across Gojjam, Damot, and Eritrea. His most impactful campaigns, however, were directed against Muslim adversaries to the east, fundamentally altering the regional balance of power in favor of Christian Ethiopia for the subsequent two centuries. A notable incident involved his response to the Mamluk Sultanate's persecution of Copts in Cairo around 1320. Amda Seyon threatened to divert the Nile's flow, and when the Sultan of Ifat, Haqq ad-Din I, imprisoned an Ethiopian envoy, Amda Seyon retaliated with a devastating invasion, killing the Sultan, sacking the capital, and ravaging Muslim territories.

Following this, Sabr ad-Din I rallied Muslim forces, prompting Amda Seyon to launch another campaign, extending his reach to Adal, Dawaro, and Bali. These conquests more than doubled the Ethiopian Empire's territory, establishing its complete regional hegemony. Contemporary chronicles vividly portray the breakdown in relations, referring to eastern Muslims as "liars, hyenas, dogs, children of evil who deny the son of Christ."

The Solomonic Golden Age

The period following Amda Seyon's campaigns ushered in a golden age for Solomonic rule, characterized by relative peace and stability. Most Muslim states in the Horn became tributaries to the Ethiopian Empire. Emperor Newaya Krestos, Amda Seyon's successor, suppressed several Muslim revolts and notably intervened on behalf of the imprisoned Patriarch of Alexandria, Mark IV, by detaining Egyptian merchants, forcing the Egyptian Sultan to yield.

Dawit I, who ascended the throne in 1382, faced renewed resistance from the Ifat Sultanate under Sa'ad ad-Din II. Dawit I declared the surrounding Muslims "enemies of the Lord" and invaded Ifat, defeating its army and pursuing Sa'ad ad-Din to Zeila on the Somaliland coast. The city was captured, and Sa'ad ad-Din was killed, effectively ending the Ifat Sultanate. The Egyptian historian al-Maqrizi noted that "the strength of the Muslims was abated," and Amhara settlers transformed ravaged mosques into churches, with Muslims reportedly harassed for over two decades. This victory solidified Ethiopian power, making this era legendary for its peace and stability.

However, the Walashma dynasty returned in 1415, establishing the Adal Sultanate near Harar, leading to renewed harassment of Christian territories. Emperor Yeshaq I dedicated his reign to defending these eastern provinces, even employing Egyptian Christian advisors to train his army in Greek fire. Despite these efforts, Yeshaq I was killed fighting the Adalites in 1429, leading to a period of dynastic instability.

Zara Yaqob's Consolidation

In 1434, Zara Yaqob stabilized the empire, launching campaigns against pagan worship and "un-Christian practices" while centralizing national administration. He also responded to the demolition of the Egyptian Debre Mitmaq monastery by ordering national mourning, building a church of the same name, and threatening the Egyptian Sultan Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq with Nile diversion over Coptic persecution. Though an Adalite invasion of Dawaro was repelled, Zara Yaqob eventually backed down from further Adal incursions. He founded Debre Berhan after a miraculous light, building a church and palace, believing it a divine sign for his anti-pagan policies.

Challenges & Resilience

The Adal Sultanate Invasion

The early 16th century saw a severe threat to the Ethiopian Empire from the Adal Sultanate. In 1527, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (often referred to as Ahmed Gran) rose to power in Adal. Having stockpiled firearms and cannons from Arabia and the Ottoman Empire, he launched an invasion in 1529, inflicting a significant defeat on Emperor Dawit II (Lebna Dengel). After a temporary withdrawal, he returned two years later for a full-scale invasion, burning churches, forcibly converting Christians, and massacring inhabitants. By the mid-1530s, much of Ethiopia was under Adalite occupation, forcing Lebna Dengel to flee until his death.

Lebna Dengel's 18-year-old son, Gelawdewos, inherited a desperate situation but rallied resistance. A crucial turning point came in 1541 with the arrival of 400 well-armed Portuguese musketeers in Massawa, who, reinforced by Ethiopian warriors, achieved initial successes against larger Adalite forces. Alarmed, Imam Gran secured 2,900 musket-armed reinforcements from the Ottoman Empire. With his Turkish allies, Gran attacked the Portuguese at Wofla, killing 200, including their commander, Cristóvão da Gama.

Despite this setback, the surviving Portuguese joined Gelawdewos's army in the Semien Mountains. The Emperor launched a decisive offensive, culminating in the Battle of Wayna Daga, where Imam Gran was killed, and his army routed. This victory led to the collapse of the invasion force and the reconquest of Christian territories. However, Gelawdewos himself was killed in 1559 during an attempt to invade the Adal Sultanate at the Battle of Fatagar, with his severed head paraded in Harar.

Ottoman Encroachment & Oromo Migrations

The mid-16th century brought further external pressures. The Ottoman Empire occupied parts of Ethiopia from 1557, establishing the Habesh Eyalet by conquering Massawa, the empire's primary port, and seizing Suakin. Emperor Sarsa Dengel successfully repelled an Adal Sultanate invasion in 1573 at the Battle of Webi River and checked Ottoman expansion by sacking Arqiqo in 1589, confining them to a narrow coastal strip. Meanwhile, significant Oromo migrations from the southeastern provinces occurred, as documented by the monk Abba Bahrey. These movements led to a progressive decentralization, with distant provinces like Bale ceasing to pay tribute by Yaqob's reign (1590–1607).

The Gondarine Golden Age

In response to these challenges, Emperor Fasilides founded Gondar as a permanent capital in 1636, initiating the Gondarine period. This era was marked by remarkable stability, prosperity, and a flourishing of Ethiopian art and architecture. Notable achievements included the construction of the royal complex Fasil Ghebbi and 44 churches around Lake Tana. Artistically, it saw the creation of diptychs, triptychs, murals, and illuminated manuscripts, predominantly with religious themes. The reign of Iyasu the Great (1682-1706) was a period of major consolidation, including diplomatic missions to Louis XIV's France and Dutch India. Philosophers like Zera Yacob and Walda Heywat also emerged during this culturally vibrant time.

Zemene Mesafint: Era of Princes

Following the death of Iyasu I, the empire entered a period of political turmoil known as the Zemene Mesafint, or "Era of Princes," from 1769 to 1855. This was a time of intense conflict among regional warlords (Rases), with the Emperor reduced to a mere puppet, holding limited power primarily around Gondar. Society and culture stagnated, and religious conflicts, both within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and between Christians and Muslims, often fueled internal strife. This era of decentralization and internal conflict persisted until the ascension of Emperor Tewodros II.

Modern Transformations

Reunification and Early Modern Conflicts

Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855–1868) ended the Zemene Mesafint, reunifying the empire and initiating its transition into the modern period. His reign, however, concluded with his suicide during the British Expedition to Abyssinia in 1868, a punitive campaign following the imprisonment of British missionaries and representatives. His successor, Yohannes IV, primarily engaged in warfare, successfully defeating Egyptian and Mahdist forces before falling in battle against the latter in 1889.

Menelik II's Expansion and Adwa

Emperor Menelik II, based in Addis Ababa, significantly expanded the empire's territory from the 1890s, incorporating numerous peoples and kingdoms in western, southern, and eastern Ethiopia, including Kaffa, Welayta, Harar, and Dizi. This expansion, partly achieved with the help of his Shewan Oromo militia led by Ras Gobena, defined Ethiopia's modern territorial boundaries. In the north, Menelik confronted Italian colonial ambitions. His decisive victory over Italy at the Battle of Adwa in 1896, utilizing modern imported weaponry, secured Ethiopia's independence and confined Italy to Eritrea. This triumph led to the Treaty of Addis Ababa, which formally recognized Ethiopia's sovereignty and delineated Eritrea's borders.

Italian Invasion and World War II

In 1935, Italian forces under Marshal Emilio De Bono launched the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. This conflict was marked by severe war crimes on both sides: Ethiopian troops reportedly used Dum-Dum bullets and mutilated captured soldiers, while Italian forces deployed sulfur mustard in chemical warfare, violating the Geneva Protocol. Emperor Haile Selassie fled to Djibouti, then to Jerusalem, and eventually to Bath, England, where he lived in exile. Addis Ababa was occupied on May 5, 1936, and Italy declared victory, establishing the Italian Empire in East Africa by merging Ethiopia with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. The League of Nations condemned the invasion but took little action.

Haile Selassie's plea to the League of Nations in Geneva in June 1936, urging non-recognition of Ethiopia as part of the Italian Empire, garnered European support. When Italy declared war on the United Kingdom and France in June 1940, the tide began to turn. The British assisted Haile Selassie in organizing his army in Sudan, leading to a military campaign in January 1941 that restored him to the throne on May 5 of the same year. This marked the end of Italian occupation and Ethiopia's reassertion of its sovereignty.

Post-War Ethiopia and Reforms

After World War II, Haile Selassie abolished slavery throughout the empire in 1942, imposing severe penalties for slave trading. Ethiopia became a charter member of the United Nations, and in 1948, the Ogaden region was granted to Ethiopia. In 1950, the UN General Assembly federated Eritrea with Ethiopia, granting Eritrea its own constitution and parliament while Ethiopia managed its finances, defense, and foreign policy. Haile Selassie also worked to establish the autocephaly of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which was achieved in 1959, making the Abuna a Patriarch-Catholicos independent of Egypt's Patriarchate. He also introduced taxation of church lands and restricted clergy's legal privileges.

Despite his modernization efforts, Haile Selassie faced significant resistance. Attempts to institute a progressive tax scheme failed due to opposition from the nobility, resulting in a flat tax that was later reduced, leaving the tax burden primarily on peasants. Ethiopia remained "semi-feudal," with the nobility and clergy eager to retain their privileges. In 1955, a revised constitution was introduced, maintaining the emperor's effective power but allowing for an elected lower house of parliament. However, this constitution was criticized for reasserting monarchical power and perpetuating peasant powerlessness. While modern education spread and development plans were initiated, reforms to end feudalism were slow and compromised by the entrenched aristocracy. Student unrest became a regular feature from the 1960s, with Marxism gaining traction among the intelligentsia. Haile Selassie increasingly delegated domestic governance to his Prime Minister, Aklilu Habte Wold, focusing more on foreign affairs.

Fall of Monarchy

The Seeds of Revolution

The government's inadequate response to the devastating 1973 Wollo famine, coupled with rising discontent among urban interest groups and soaring fuel prices due to the 1973 oil crisis, ignited widespread unrest. In February 1974, a revolt erupted among the army and civilian populace, signaling the profound instability gripping the empire. This culminated in June with the formation of the Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army, commonly known as the Derg, which sought to restore order amidst the civilian government's powerlessness.

Deposition and Execution

In July 1974, Emperor Haile Selassie granted the Derg significant concessions, allowing them to arrest military and government officials across all levels. This led to the imprisonment of former Prime Ministers Tsehafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold and Endelkachew Makonnen, along with many cabinet members, regional governors, senior military officers, and imperial court officials. Following a proposed constitution for a constitutional monarchy, the Derg moved to dismantle the imperial government. On September 12, 1974, the Emperor was deposed and imprisoned. Lieutenant General Aman Andom was appointed acting head of state, pending the return of Crown Prince Asfaw Wossen to assume the throne as a constitutional monarch.

However, General Aman Andom soon clashed with radical elements within the Derg over a proposed military offensive in Eritrea and the execution of former government officials. After neutralizing units loyal to him, including the Engineers, the Imperial Bodyguard, and the Air Force, the Derg removed General Aman from power and executed him on November 23, 1974, along with some of his supporters and 60 officials from the previous Imperial government.

End of an Era

Brigadier General Tafari Benti became the new chairman of the Derg and head of state. In March 1975, the monarchy was formally abolished, and Marxism-Leninism was proclaimed the new state ideology. Emperor Haile Selassie died under mysterious circumstances on August 27, 1975, in the absence of his personal physician. It is widely believed that Mengistu Haile Mariam was responsible for his death, either by direct order or by his own hand, marking the definitive end of the Ethiopian Empire.

Society

Feudal Social Structure

According to the 16th-century monk Bahrey, Ethiopian feudal society was stratified into ten distinct social groups. These included the monks, the debtera (lay officials), judges, men-at-arms providing personal protection to dignitaries' wives and princesses, the shimaglle (lords and hereditary landowners), their farm laborers or serfs, traders, artisans, wandering singers, and the chewa (soldiers). While some of these categories might not align with modern class definitions, the shimaglle, serfs, chewa, artisans, and traders clearly constituted defined social classes.

Power Dynamics

Power within the Ethiopian Empire was concentrated in the hands of the Emperor and the aristocrats he appointed to execute his authority. The enforcement of this power was primarily vested in the chewa, a class of soldiers. This authoritarian system, deeply rooted in feudalism, institutionalized social inequality. As land became the paramount commodity, its acquisition became a primary driver of imperial expansion, particularly from the reign of Menelik II onwards, further solidifying the hierarchical structure of society.

Military

Chewa Regiments: Backbone of the Empire

From the reign of Amde Tseyon, the Chewa regiments (Ge'ez: ṣäwa; Amharic: č̣äwa) formed the core of the Ethiopian Empire's military forces. These legions typically comprised several thousand men. Each regiment was granted a fief (Gult), ensuring its upkeep through land revenue. This system provided a stable and dedicated military force for the empire's defense and expansion.

Strategic Deployments

In 1445, following the Battle of Gomit, Emperor Zara Yaqob initiated the practice of garrisoning provinces with Chewa regiments, indicating a strategic shift towards maintaining imperial control across the realm. The military was broadly divided into three major categories:

Regiments stationed at the court, under the direct command of high court officials.
Regiments deployed in the provinces, reporting to regional Rases or other appointed officials.
Regiments in border regions or more autonomous provinces, such as Hadiya, Bahir Negash, and Bale, overseen by azmač, who were military officials appointed by the king.

Imperial Army: Known Deployments (c. 15th Century)

The following table summarizes some of the known Chewa regiments and their regions of deployment during the 15th century, illustrating the empire's military organization and territorial reach:

Name of Regiment	Region	Translation
Bäṣär wačät	Serae, Dawaro, Menz, Gamo	Enemy of the wačät
Ǝan amora	Dobe'a, Tselemt, Gedem	Eagle of the majesty
Ǝan sagana	Dawaro, Dobe'a, Angot
č̣äwa Bale	Bali
č̣äwa Maya	Medre Bahr
Bäṣur amora	Gamo	Spear of the eagle
Bäṣär šotäl	Damot	Spear of the foe
č̣äwa Begemder	Begemder
č̣äwa Ifat	Ifat

Notably, one of these regiments, the Abe Lahm (or Weregenu in Oromo), persisted and participated in the Battle of Adwa before being phased out in the 1920s. The modern Ethiopian army began its formation in 1917 under Ras Tafari Makonnen, with the establishment of the Kebur Zabagna, the imperial guard.

Economy & Currency

Traditional Economic Systems

For centuries, the Ethiopian Empire's economy operated largely on a barter system, utilizing "primitive money" and various forms of currency within a feudal framework until the 20th century. Peasants' activities were primarily focused on production, taxation, and agrarian output. Early forms of currency included essential items such as "amole" (salt bars), pieces of cloth, iron, and later, cartridges.

Evolution of Currency

Archaeological excavations near Mount Yerer have uncovered 5.5 mm gold cubes, weighing 3.2 grams each and dating to the medieval period. Lacking jewelry features, these cubes likely served as a standardized measure of gold value for trade, possibly bearing marks indicating official currency status. In 1699, the French traveler Charles Poncet noted the use of gold wedges, potentially over 10 grams, as currency in Gondar. By the 19th century, the Maria Theresa Thaler became the primary medium of exchange for large transactions, until Emperor Menelik II began minting local currency around the turn of the century.

Modernization and Banking

In 1905, Menelik II established the first bank, the Bank of Abyssinia, following a concession from the British-occupied National Bank of Egypt. This institution monopolized government public funds, loans, banknote printing, and coin minting. It expanded with branches in Harar, Dire Dawa, Gore, and Dembidolo, and agencies in Gambela and a transit office in Djibouti. In 1932, Emperor Haile Selassie renamed it the "Bank of Ethiopia" after paid compensation. To foster industrial and manufacturing growth, Haile Selassie, with the National Economic Council's assistance, launched three Five-Year Master Plans from 1957 to 1974.

Between 1960 and 1970, Ethiopia experienced an annual growth rate of 4.4% in both per capita income and Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Manufacturing growth increased from 1.9% in 1960/61 to 4.4% in 1973/74, while wholesale, retail trade, transportation, and communication sectors saw growth from 9.5% to 15.6%. Ethiopia also exported approximately 800,000 bushels of wheat, primarily to the Kingdom of Egypt, the Dutch East Indies, and Greece. The country's GDP around 1934 was estimated at $1.3 billion, though it drastically declined following the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.

Government

Feudal Monarchy to Constitutionalism

The Ethiopian Empire's governmental structure evolved from an authoritarian feudal system, where institutionalized social inequality was prevalent. Land ownership was a central tenet, driving imperial expansion, particularly from the reign of Menelik II. As part of Emperor Haile Selassie's modernization efforts, the traditional monarchical regime underwent significant reforms with the introduction of the 1931 and 1955 constitutions.

Parliamentary System

These constitutional reforms introduced a unitary parliamentary system featuring two legislative bodies: the Chamber of Senate (Yeheggue Mewossegna Meker Beth) and the Chamber of Deputies (Yeheggue Memeriya Meker Beth). Under the 1956 constitution, Article 56 stipulated that no individual could simultaneously be a member of both chambers, which convened at the beginning or end of each parliamentary session.

Legislative Composition

Within this parliamentary framework, the Chamber of Deputies consisted of 250 members, who were elected every four years. The Senate, on the other hand, comprised 125 members (half the number of Deputies), appointed by the Emperor for six-year terms. This bicameral structure represented a significant step towards modernizing the imperial government, albeit with the Emperor retaining substantial power.

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References

Ethiopia - Population Countryeconomy

The Royal Chronicle of his reign is translated in part by Richard K. P. Pankhurst, The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles (Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press, 1967).

Constitution of Ethiopia, 4 November 1955, Article 76 (source: Constitutions of Nations: Volume I, Africa by Amos Jenkins Peaslee)

J. Spencer Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 75

BraukÃ¤mper, Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays (Hamburg: Lit Verlag, 2002), p. 82

International Crisis Group, "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents". Issue 153 of ICG Africa report (4 September 2009) p. 2.

Shinn, David Hamilton and Ofcansky, Thomas P. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. 2004, page 201.

Shinn, David Hamilton and Ofcansky, Thomas P. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. 2004, page 140-1.

Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), pp.220â26

Mammo, Tirfe. The Paradox of Africa's Poverty: The Role of Indigenous Knowledge. 1999, page 100.

Semere Haile "The Origins and Demise of the Ethiopia-Eritrea Federation", Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 15 (1987), pp.9â17

A full list of references for this article are available at the Ethiopian Empire Wikipedia page

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Abyssinian Majesty

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Introduction 🌍

👑 A Millennium of Sovereignty

🗺️ Territorial Evolution

⏳ A Legacy of Resilience

Dynastic Origins 📜

🏛️ From Aksum to Zagwe

🦁 The Solomonic Restoration

👑 The Legend of Solomon and Sheba

🤝 Early Diplomatic Engagements

Imperial Expansion 📈

⚔️ Amda Seyon's Formidable Campaigns

🌟 The Solomonic Golden Age

✨ Zara Yaqob's Consolidation

Challenges & Resilience 🛡️

🔥 The Adal Sultanate Invasion

🌊 Ottoman Encroachment & Oromo Migrations

🏰 The Gondarine Golden Age

🌪️ Zemene Mesafint: Era of Princes

Modern Transformations ⚙️

🔗 Reunification and Early Modern Conflicts

🗺️ Menelik II's Expansion and Adwa

🇮🇹 Italian Invasion and World War II

🕊️ Post-War Ethiopia and Reforms

Fall of Monarchy 📉

🚨 The Seeds of Revolution

⛓️ Deposition and Execution

💀 End of an Era

Society 👥

🏛️ Feudal Social Structure

⚖️ Power Dynamics

Military ⚔️

🛡️ Chewa Regiments: Backbone of the Empire

📍 Strategic Deployments

📜 Imperial Army: Known Deployments (c. 15th Century)

Economy & Currency 💰

🔄 Traditional Economic Systems

🪙 Evolution of Currency

🏦 Modernization and Banking

Government 🏛️

👑 Feudal Monarchy to Constitutionalism

⚖️ Parliamentary System

🗳️ Legislative Composition

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction

A Millennium of Sovereignty

Territorial Evolution

A Legacy of Resilience

Dynastic Origins

From Aksum to Zagwe

The Solomonic Restoration

The Legend of Solomon and Sheba

Early Diplomatic Engagements

Imperial Expansion

Amda Seyon's Formidable Campaigns

The Solomonic Golden Age

Zara Yaqob's Consolidation

Challenges & Resilience

The Adal Sultanate Invasion

Ottoman Encroachment & Oromo Migrations

The Gondarine Golden Age

Zemene Mesafint: Era of Princes

Modern Transformations

Reunification and Early Modern Conflicts

Menelik II's Expansion and Adwa

Italian Invasion and World War II

Post-War Ethiopia and Reforms

Fall of Monarchy

The Seeds of Revolution

Deposition and Execution

End of an Era

Society

Feudal Social Structure

Power Dynamics

Military

Chewa Regiments: Backbone of the Empire

Strategic Deployments

Imperial Army: Known Deployments (c. 15th Century)

Economy & Currency

Traditional Economic Systems

Evolution of Currency

Modernization and Banking

Government

Feudal Monarchy to Constitutionalism

Parliamentary System

Legislative Composition

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice