When did the fall of Babylon occur, marking the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire?

The fall of Babylon occurred in 539 BC, when the Persian Empire conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire. This event concluded the reign of Mesopotamia's last native dynasty and brought the Fertile Crescent under Persian control.

Who were the primary belligerents in the conflict that led to the fall of Babylon?

The primary belligerents were the Persian Empire, led by Cyrus the Great, and the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

What was the immediate territorial consequence of the Persian victory over the Neo-Babylonian Empire?

The immediate territorial consequence was the annexation of the Fertile Crescent by Persia.

Who were the main commanders for the Persian Empire and the Neo-Babylonian Empire during the fall of Babylon?

The main commander for the Persian Empire was Cyrus the Great, supported by Gobryas. For the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the commanders were Nabonidus and his son Belshazzar.

What significant historical shift did the fall of Babylon in 539 BC represent?

The fall of Babylon in 539 BC marked the conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire by the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great. This event ended the reign of Mesopotamia's last native dynasty and transferred control of the Fertile Crescent to the Persians.

Who was the last native king of Mesopotamia, and what happened to his dynasty?

The last native king of Mesopotamia was Nabonidus. His dynasty ended with the Persian conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC.

What were the key internal factors that contributed to the disaffection with Nabonidus's rule in Babylonia?

Several factors led to the population's disaffection with Nabonidus. The priesthood of Marduk resented him for suppressing Marduk's cult and promoting the worship of the moon-god Sin. Additionally, his scholarly interests and focus on rebuilding temples elsewhere, rather than solely on defending the kingdom, alienated the military and political elite. His Assyrian heritage may have also contributed to resentment.

How did Nabonidus's religious policies alienate the Babylonian priesthood?

Nabonidus alienated the priesthood of Marduk by suppressing Marduk's cult and elevating the cult of the moon-god Sin. He also attempted to centralize religious authority in Babylon, which further estranged local priesthoods.

Why did the military class reportedly dislike Nabonidus?

The military reportedly disliked Nabonidus due to his scholarly tastes and his perceived neglect of military defense, which he largely left to his son Belshazzar. Nabonidus seemed more interested in his studies and rebuilding temples in places like Harran.

Who was Belshazzar, and what was his role and reputation in the Neo-Babylonian Empire?

Belshazzar was the son and crown prince of Nabonidus. While he was a capable soldier, his performance as a politician was poor, leading to a loss of support from the priesthood and even the military class. He was entrusted with the defense of the kingdom.

What significant event occurred in 550/549 BC that impacted the geopolitical landscape before the fall of Babylon?

In 550/549 BC, Cyrus the Great of Anshan revolted against his suzerain Astyages, the king of the Medes. After Astyages' army betrayed him, Cyrus took control of Ecbatana, ending the Median Empire and elevating the Persians among the Iranic peoples.

How did Cyrus the Great consolidate his power in the years leading up to the invasion of Babylonia?

After overthrowing Astyages, Cyrus became king of all Persia. He then engaged in a campaign to suppress a revolt among the Assyrians in 547 BC. By 540 BC, he initiated an offensive campaign against the Neo-Babylonian Empire, with many of Nabonidus's vassals falling under Persian authority within months.

What was Nabonidus's strategy regarding his military and his own activities in the period before the Persian invasion?

Nabonidus entrusted the defense of the kingdom to his son Belshazzar, who was a capable soldier but a poor diplomat. Nabonidus himself focused on scholarly pursuits, such as excavating temple foundation records, and spent time outside Babylonia, rebuilding temples in Harran and among his Arab subjects.

When did Cyrus's offensive campaign against the Neo-Babylonian Empire begin, and what was its initial impact?

Cyrus initiated his offensive campaign against the Neo-Babylonian Empire by 540 BC. Within a few months, many of Nabonidus's vassals had come under Persian authority.

What year did Cyrus invade Babylonia, and what challenges exist in reconstructing the events of its fall?

Cyrus invaded Babylonia in 539 BC. Historical reconstruction of the fall of Babylon is challenging due to inconsistencies between various source documents, such as the Babylonian Chronicles, the Cyrus Cylinder, and accounts from Greek historians like Herodotus and Xenophon.

How do different historical sources describe the capture of Babylon by Cyrus?

The Babylonian Chronicles and the Cyrus Cylinder suggest Babylon was taken without battle. In contrast, Greek historians Herodotus and Xenophon report that the city was besieged. The biblical Book of Daniel mentions Belshazzar's death but not the specific circumstances.

What happened to Nabonidus after the Persian invasion?

Nabonidus surrendered to the Persian forces and was deported.

Who took charge of Babylon immediately after its capture, and what was his role?

Gobryas (also referred to as Ugbaru) acted for Cyrus in his absence and was subsequently made governor of the province of Babylon.

What was the status of Babylon after 539 BC?

Babylon, like Assyria, became a province of the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC.

What was one of Cyrus's first acts after conquering Babylon, and what was its purpose?

One of Cyrus's first acts was to allow exiled populations, including the Jewish exiles, to return to their homes. This policy was embodied in a proclamation intended to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne as a legitimate successor and restorer of order.

How did Cyrus present himself to the Babylonian people and priesthood?

Cyrus presented himself as the legitimate successor to the ancient Babylonian kings and the chosen savior of Marduk, aiming to restore order and justice. He was assumed by the Marduk priesthood to be acting against Nabonidus's impiety in moving local gods' images to Babylon.

What happened to the Jewish exiles following the fall of Babylon?

Following the fall of Babylon, Cyrus allowed the Jewish exiles to return to Israel from Babylonian captivity.

How did Babylon's role in conferring legitimacy on rulers change over time under Persian rule?

Initially, Cyrus assumed the title King of Babylon, and Babylon's consecration was seen as conferring legitimacy on rulers of western Asia. This tradition was broken only when Darius I, ruling as a representative of the Zoroastrian religion, acquired the Persian throne, and Babylon's role in conferring legitimacy ceased to be acknowledged.

What happened in Babylon during the reigns of Darius I and Artaxerxes I concerning the Jewish population?

Although the Jews did not rebel against the Persian occupation after Cyrus, they were restive under Darius I and Artaxerxes I. However, they did not take up arms, and no reprisals were exacted by the Persian government.

What title did Cyrus grant his son Cambyses II in 529 BCE?

In 529 BCE, a year before his death, Cyrus elevated his son Cambyses II to be king of Babylon, while Cyrus retained the title of king of the other provinces of the empire.

What were the circumstances surrounding the brief independence of Babylonia after Darius I seized the Persian throne?

Immediately after Darius I acquired the Persian throne, Babylonia briefly recovered its independence under a native ruler named Nidinta-Bel, who assumed the name Nebuchadnezzar III. The Persians retook the city by storm in late 521 BC, during which Assyria also rebelled.

How did Babylon's walls fare after the revolt led by Arakha (Nebuchadnezzar IV)?

After Babylon revolted again in 521 BCE under the Armenian King Arakha, who took the name Nebuchadnezzar IV, the walls of the city were partly destroyed upon its recapture by the Persians.

What remained a center of Babylonian patriotism even after multiple conquests and revolts?

Esagila, the great temple of Bel, continued to be maintained and served as a center of Babylonian patriotism.

Who conquered Babylon in 331 BC, and where did he die?

The Macedonian king Alexander the Great conquered Babylon in 331 BC and died there in 323 BC.

What happened to Babylonia and Assyria after the wars among Alexander the Great's generals?

After a decade of wars among Alexander's former generals, Babylonia and Assyria were absorbed into the Macedonian Seleucid Empire.

What was the traditional view of Babylon's decline after the Hellenistic period, and how has recent scholarship revised this?

It was long maintained that the founding of Seleucia diverted Babylonia's population and that the old city's ruins were used as a quarry. However, recent publication of the Babylonian Chronicles from the Hellenistic Period indicates that urban life in Babylon remained significant well into the Parthian age.

What major shift occurred in the region around 150 BC?

Around 150 BC, the Parthian king Mithridates conquered the region, incorporating it into the Arsacid Empire, and the area became a contested battleground between Greeks and Parthians.

What is the nature of the cuneiform texts written after the Persian victory at Babylon?

The cuneiform texts, including the Nabonidus Chronicle, the Cyrus Cylinder, and the Verse Account of Nabonidus, were written after the Persian victory. They portray Nabonidus negatively and present Cyrus as a liberator and legitimate successor.

How is the Cyrus Cylinder viewed by modern scholarship in relation to the fall of Babylon?

Modern scholarship recognizes the Cyrus Cylinder as a propaganda document designed to legitimize Cyrus's conquest and manipulate public opinion against Nabonidus. Its claim that Babylon fell without opposition is considered unlikely by historians like Briant and Michalowski.

What does historian Pierre Briant suggest about the fall of Babylon based on the Cyrus Cylinder's claims?

Historian Pierre Briant suggests that the claim of Babylon falling without resistance, as stated in the Cyrus Cylinder, appears prima facie unlikely.

What is the assessment of the Nabonidus Chronicle by modern scholars?

Scholars view the Nabonidus Chronicle as a rework of history from the Persian court, presented as if from Nabonidus himself. While its early parts are verifiable, the latter part, particularly concerning Nabonidus's seventeenth year, is considered highly flattering to Cyrus.

What theory does Gauthier Tolini propose regarding the capture of Babylon?

Gauthier Tolini proposes that Babylon was captured through a forced entry via the Enlil Gate on the west bank of the Euphrates, with a portion of the Persian army crossing the river to take the eastern districts. This aligns with accounts of a surprise capture.

How might the diversion of the Euphrates river have played a role in Babylon's capture, according to some historical accounts?

Some accounts, like that of Herodotus, suggest the Persian army diverted the Euphrates river, allowing them to enter the city along the dry riverbed. This aligns with theories of a surprise entry, possibly through the Enlil Gate as proposed by Tolini.

What common element do the accounts of Xenophon, Herodotus, and the Book of Daniel share regarding the night Babylon was taken?

Xenophon, Herodotus, and the Book of Daniel all agree that the city of Babylon was taken by surprise during a festival, implying a lack of full preparedness among the defenders.

According to Xenophon's Cyropaedia, who was killed during the capture of Babylon?

According to Xenophon's Cyropaedia, both the king (Nabonidus) and his son (Belshazzar) were reigning when the city fell, and the younger ruler (Belshazzar) was killed during the capture.

What does the Cyropaedia describe regarding the entry of Persian forces into Babylon?

The Cyropaedia describes Gobryas leading a detachment into the capital, encountering resistance, and eventually reaching the king's palace. It details how forces under Gobryas and Gadatas attacked the guards and then proceeded to the king, overwhelming and killing him and his retinue.

What specific event is mentioned in the Babylonian Chronicle as occurring on the night Babylon was captured?

The Babylonian Chronicle records that Babylon was captured on the 16th of Tašrītu, which was the night before the akitu festival in honor of the moon god Sin. This timing aligns with the accounts of the city being taken during a festival.

How did the conquest of Jerusalem by the Neo-Babylonian Empire influence the formation of the Book of Isaiah?

The conquest of Jerusalem in 586 BCE and the subsequent exile of its elite marked a new phase in the formation of the Book of Isaiah. The section known as Deutero-Isaiah addressed the exiled Israelites, offering them hope for return and predicting the fall of Babylon.

What is the estimated timeframe for the prophecies in Deutero-Isaiah concerning Babylon's fall and Cyrus's role?

The prophecies in Deutero-Isaiah regarding the imminent fall of Babylon and the glorification of Cyrus as Israel's deliverer are dated to the period between 550 and 539 BCE, likely towards the end of that range.

What event does the Book of Daniel, chapter 5, describe occurring on Belshazzar's final night?

The Book of Daniel chapter 5 describes Belshazzar holding a feast where he uses sacred temple treasures from Jerusalem to praise Babylonian gods. During this feast, a hand appears and writes on the wall, an event interpreted by Daniel, after which Belshazzar is killed and Darius the Mede becomes king.

Who is identified as the successor to Belshazzar in the Book of Daniel, and what is historically known about this figure?

According to the Book of Daniel, Darius the Mede becomes king after Belshazzar's death. However, this figure is not known to history.

What other related topics are mentioned in the 'See also' section of the article?

The 'See also' section lists the Whore of Babylon and the Fall of Nineveh.

What does the image titled 'The Fall of Babylon' depict, and who is the artist?

The image titled 'The Fall of Babylon' is a 1819 artwork by John Martin, depicting the event of the Persian conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

What does the map of the Neo-Babylonian Empire show?

The map of the Neo-Babylonian Empire illustrates its greatest territorial extent under its final king, Nabonidus.

What does the map illustrating Cyrus the Great's invasion of Babylonia show?

The map illustrating Cyrus the Great's invasion of Babylonia shows the path taken by Cyrus during his 539 BC campaign into the region.

What is the significance of the location of Babylon mentioned in the infobox?

The infobox specifies Babylon's location as being in Babylonia, Mesopotamia, which corresponds to modern-day Iraq. This geographical context highlights its historical importance in the ancient Near East.

Fall Of Babylon Wiki: Babylon's Twilight: The Achaemenid Conquest

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The Fall of Babylon

Date and Location

The fall of Babylon occurred in 539 BC, marking the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The conquest took place in and around the city of Babylon, located in ancient Babylonia, within modern-day Iraq.^[1]

Belligerents and Outcome

The conflict pitted the expanding Persian Empire, led by Cyrus the Great, against the Neo-Babylonian Empire, commanded by its final king, Nabonidus, and his son Belshazzar.^[3] The result was a decisive Persian victory, leading to the annexation of the Fertile Crescent by Persia.^[1]

Historical Significance

This event signified the end of the last native dynasty ruling Mesopotamia and integrated a vast territory, including the culturally rich region of Babylonia, into the burgeoning Achaemenid Empire. It represented a major geopolitical shift in the ancient Near East.^[1]

Internal Strife: Seeds of Decline

Religious Discontent

King Nabonidus alienated key segments of Babylonian society, particularly the powerful priesthood of the chief god Marduk. He suppressed Marduk's cult and elevated the worship of the moon-god Sin, centralizing religious activities in his rebuilt temple at Harran.^[4]^[5] This move generated significant resentment and weakened internal cohesion.

Military and Political Alienation

Nabonidus' scholarly pursuits and perceived neglect of traditional Babylonian governance further estranged the military and political elite. While his son Belshazzar proved a capable soldier, his diplomatic shortcomings and the king's prolonged absences, including time spent among Arab subjects, eroded support.^[3] The Assyrian heritage of Nabonidus and Belshazzar may have also contributed to resentment among the Babylonian populace.

Growing Persian Power

Concurrently, the Achaemenid Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great was rapidly expanding its influence. Cyrus had already overthrown the Median Empire and initiated campaigns that brought significant territories under Persian control, setting the stage for a confrontation with the weakened Babylonian kingdom.^[1]

The Campaign and Conquest

Cyrus' Advance

By 540 BC, Cyrus had initiated offensive operations against Babylonia's eastern territories. In the subsequent years, many Babylonian vassals fell under Persian authority. Nabonidus was compelled to return to Babylon from his desert encampment around 543 BC due to persistent Persian incursions along the border.^[1]

Conflicting Accounts

The precise circumstances of Babylon's fall are debated among historians due to discrepancies in primary sources. The Babylonian Chronicles and the Cyrus Cylinder suggest a relatively peaceful entry by Cyrus, describing the city being taken "without battle."^[6] However, Greek historians like Herodotus and Xenophon, along with the biblical Book of Daniel, report a siege and significant conflict.^[6]

Strategic Entry Theories

Modern scholarship, such as the work of Gauthier Tolini, proposes that a Persian force under General Ugbaru (Gobryas) may have entered the city through a strategic diversion of the Euphrates River, allowing them to penetrate the city's defenses during a festival.^[24] This aligns with accounts suggesting the city was caught unprepared due to festivities, as noted in Xenophon's Cyropaedia and the Book of Daniel.^[29]^[25]

The Fate of Belshazzar

Both Xenophon and the Book of Daniel recount the death of Belshazzar on the night Babylon fell. Xenophon's narrative describes a violent confrontation within the palace, resulting in the king and his retinue being slain.^[29] Nabonidus himself surrendered and was subsequently deported.^[1]

Integration and Resistance

Cyrus' Policies

Cyrus implemented policies aimed at consolidating his rule and gaining the loyalty of the conquered populace. Notably, he allowed exiled populations, including the Jews, to return to their homelands and restore their religious sites, a move documented in the biblical accounts.^[8] He assumed the title "King of Babylon," presenting himself as the legitimate successor to the ancient rulers and the chosen instrument of the Babylonian god Marduk.^[13]

Subsequent Revolts

Despite Cyrus' efforts, Babylonian resistance persisted. Under Darius I, who consolidated Persian rule and established Zoroastrianism as a state religion, Babylonia briefly regained independence under a native ruler named Nidinta-Bel, who adopted the name Nebuchadnezzar III. This revolt was suppressed, and the city's walls were damaged during subsequent rebellions, including one led by Arakha (Nebuchadnezzar IV) under Artaxerxes I.^[14]^[15] The temple of Bel (Esagila) remained a symbol of Babylonian identity.

Hellenistic and Parthian Eras

Babylon continued as an important city through the Hellenistic period following Alexander the Great's conquest in 331 BC. Although urban life persisted well into the Parthian age (c. 150 BC – 226 AD), the region eventually became a contested territory between the Seleucid and Parthian empires.^[1]

Interpreting the Past: Sources

Cuneiform Texts

Key cuneiform sources, including the Nabonidus Chronicle and the Cyrus Cylinder, were produced after the Persian victory. These texts tend to portray Nabonidus negatively and present Cyrus as a liberator, legitimizing his rule. Modern scholarship views the Cyrus Cylinder, in particular, as a propaganda document designed to manipulate public opinion.^[16]^[18]

Greek and Biblical Accounts

Greek historians like Herodotus and Xenophon, along with the biblical Book of Daniel, offer different perspectives, often suggesting a more violent conquest. Xenophon's account, detailed in the Cyropaedia, describes a surprise attack during a festival, aligning with the biblical narrative of Belshazzar's feast.^[7]^[25]

Scholarly Debate

Scholars like Pierre Briant and Piotr Michalowski question the claim of a bloodless surrender, suggesting it is unlikely and lacks contemporary corroboration.^[21]^[22] The discrepancies highlight the importance of critically evaluating ancient sources for bias and political motivation.

Biblical Perspectives

Book of Isaiah

Prophecies attributed to Deutero-Isaiah, likely dating from the period 550–539 BC, foretell the imminent fall of Babylon and glorify Cyrus as a divinely appointed deliverer of the exiled Israelites. These texts offer hope for the return from Babylonian captivity.^[32]^[33]

Book of Daniel

Chapter 5 of the Book of Daniel vividly describes the final night of Belshazzar's reign. It recounts a lavish feast where sacred vessels from Jerusalem were desecrated, followed by a mysterious hand writing on the wall. Daniel interprets the writing, foretelling the kingdom's demise and its transfer to Darius the Mede.^[30]

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References

Histories I.191; Cyropaedia VI.5.15â16; Gaston 2009, pp. 88â89.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Fall of Babylon Wikipedia page

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Babylon's Twilight

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

The Fall of Babylon 🏛️

📅 Date and Location

👑 Belligerents and Outcome

🌍 Historical Significance

Internal Strife: Seeds of Decline 💔

🛕 Religious Discontent

⚔️ Military and Political Alienation

📈 Growing Persian Power

The Campaign and Conquest ⚔️

🗺️ Cyrus' Advance

❓ Conflicting Accounts

🌊 Strategic Entry Theories

🩸 The Fate of Belshazzar

Integration and Resistance 🔗

🕊️ Cyrus' Policies

🔥 Subsequent Revolts

🏛️ Hellenistic and Parthian Eras

Interpreting the Past: Sources 📜

✍️ Cuneiform Texts

🏛️ Greek and Biblical Accounts

🤔 Scholarly Debate

Biblical Perspectives 📖

📜 Book of Isaiah

🎉 Book of Daniel

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

The Fall of Babylon

Date and Location

Belligerents and Outcome

Historical Significance

Internal Strife: Seeds of Decline

Religious Discontent

Military and Political Alienation

Growing Persian Power

The Campaign and Conquest

Cyrus' Advance

Conflicting Accounts

Strategic Entry Theories

The Fate of Belshazzar

Integration and Resistance

Cyrus' Policies

Subsequent Revolts

Hellenistic and Parthian Eras

Interpreting the Past: Sources

Cuneiform Texts

Greek and Biblical Accounts

Scholarly Debate

Biblical Perspectives

Book of Isaiah

Book of Daniel

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice