What is the fundamental definition of falsifiability in the context of scientific evaluation?

Falsifiability is a standard for evaluating scientific theories and hypotheses, asserting that a hypothesis is falsifiable if its logical structure permits an empirical observation that contradicts it. This concept was introduced by Karl Popper in his 1934 book, *The Logic of Scientific Discovery*.

According to Karl Popper, what two significant philosophical problems does falsifiability aim to solve?

Karl Popper proposed falsifiability as a key solution to both the problem of induction, which questions how to generalize from specific observations to universal laws, and the problem of demarcation, which seeks to distinguish scientific theories from non-scientific ones.

How does falsifiability differ from the concept of verifiability?

Falsifiability focuses on the logical possibility of refuting a hypothesis through observation, whereas verifiability, prominent in logical positivism, sought to confirm a hypothesis. Popper argued that universal statements, like 'All swans are white,' cannot be definitively verified because one cannot observe all instances, but they can be falsified by observing a single counter-example, such as a black swan.

Explain Popper's approach to solving the problem of induction using falsifiability.

Popper addressed the problem of induction by suggesting that science progresses not by verifying universal laws through repeated observations, but by attempting to falsify them. The observation of a single black swan logically refutes the statement 'All swans are white' via modus tollens, demonstrating that falsification is a logically valid process.

What is the logical inference pattern that underpins the concept of falsification?

The logical inference pattern underpinning falsification is modus tollens. It states that if a law (L) logically implies a prediction (P), and the observation shows that P is false (¬P), then the law (L) must also be false (¬L).

What is David Hume's central problem concerning knowledge acquisition?

David Hume's problem of induction questions how we gain knowledge that goes beyond immediate observations and known laws. He argued that this process relies on psychological habits rather than logical justification, and that no general rules, deductive or otherwise, can logically validate this learning process.

How did Popper's view on scientific learning relate to Hume's problem of induction?

Popper accepted Hume's conclusion that induction cannot be logically justified. Instead, he proposed that scientific progress occurs through 'quasi-induction,' a method of trial and error driven by expectations and predispositions, rather than by inferring universal laws from repeated observations.

What is Bayesian inductive logic, and how does it relate to deductive logic?

Bayesian inductive logic uses theorems derived from deductive logic and probability laws to support inductive steps. While it incorporates deductive reasoning, it does not resolve Hume's problem regarding the ultimate justification for choosing initial hypotheses.

What distinction did Karl Popper draw between the logic of science and its applied methodology?

Popper distinguished the logic of science, which concerns the logical structure of falsifiability, from its applied methodology, which involves practical aspects like accepting observations as factual or using statistical tests. Falsifiability itself is presented as a logical criterion, separate from these methodological decisions.

According to Popper, what is the role of auxiliary assumptions in the process of testing scientific theories?

Popper acknowledged that testing theories often involves auxiliary assumptions. While these assumptions and methodological considerations are crucial for actual falsification (e.g., ruling out hidden strings affecting a falling object), they are considered irrelevant to the purely logical criterion of falsifiability.

What are 'basic statements' in Popper's framework, and what is their purpose?

Basic statements, also known as test statements, are purely logical observations within a theory's framework that are accepted by convention. Their purpose is to provide potential contradictions that can demonstrate the falsifiability of a theory.

What is the 'material requirement' for basic statements in the context of falsifiability?

The material requirement for basic statements is that they must be communicable and testable through inter-subjective observation, meaning they must be potentially verifiable by others.

What is Popper's formal definition of a scientific theory regarding falsifiability?

Popper defined a theory as scientific if it divides basic statements into two non-empty classes: those it prohibits (potential falsifiers) and those it permits (corroborators). This division ensures the theory makes specific, testable claims.

What constitutes a 'potential falsifier' within Popper's definition of falsifiability?

A potential falsifier is a basic statement that, if found to be true, would logically contradict and thereby falsify the theory being tested.

How must a falsifier be structured to contradict a universal law?

To falsify a universal law, a falsifier typically requires two components: an initial condition specifying a particular instance, and a singular statement that contradicts the prediction derived from the law for that instance. For example, observing a black swan contradicts the prediction of a white swan from the law 'All swans are white'.

How can a statement that is not initially falsifiable become falsifiable?

A statement can become falsifiable if an empirical basis is specified, meaning a method or technology is defined to test it. For instance, 'All men are mortal' becomes falsifiable if an upper limit to human lifespan is specified, such as 'All men die before the age of 150'.

What is meant by 'corroboration without demarcation'?

'Corroboration without demarcation' refers to statements that are useful and supported by evidence but lack strict falsifiability. Popper suggested these non-falsifiable statements can be indirectly corroborated by their consistency with falsifiable laws.

From a model-theoretic perspective, what does falsifiability imply for a theory?

In model theory, falsifiability means that within a collection of possible structures or interpretations, there must exist at least one structure that contradicts the theory. A stronger definition requires that all structures not satisfying the theory must contain a contradicting set of observations.

How does Popper use Newton's theory of gravitation as an example of falsifiability?

Popper used the example of an apple falling upwards as a potential falsifier for Newton's law of gravitation. This illustrates that the law prohibits certain states of affairs, such as an upward trajectory, which can be described by a basic statement.

What is an example of a basic statement that could falsify the equivalence principle?

A basic statement like 'The inert mass of this object is ten times larger than its gravitational mass' could falsify the equivalence principle. This is because inert and gravitational mass can be measured separately, allowing for a potential contradiction, even though they are empirically observed to be equal.

How is industrial melanism used as an example of falsifiability in evolutionary theory?

Industrial melanism, specifically the relative fitness of the white-bodied peppered moth in industrial areas, is used as an example of a falsifiable evolutionary hypothesis. The statement about the moth's fitness in a specific environment can be empirically tested and potentially contradicted.

What is the 'Precambrian rabbit' example, and what does it demonstrate about scientific theories?

The 'Precambrian rabbit' is a hypothetical fossil discovery used to illustrate falsifiability in paleontology. Finding such a fossil would contradict the hypothesis that mammals only existed in more recent eras, demonstrating that scientific theories must be open to potential refutation by evidence.

Why is the statement 'All angels have large wings' considered unfalsifiable?

This statement is considered unfalsifiable because there is no accepted method or technology to identify or observe angels. Without a way to formulate a basic statement that could contradict it, the hypothesis remains untestable.

What is the Omphalos hypothesis, and why is it considered unfalsifiable?

The Omphalos hypothesis suggests the world was created with the appearance of age, making methods like carbon dating seem illusory. It is unfalsifiable because it dismisses standard measurement techniques without proposing an alternative, testable method for verifying the claimed 'actual' age of creation.

In what legal contexts has the principle of falsifiability been applied?

Falsifiability has been applied in legal contexts, notably in the U.S. court cases *McLean v. Arkansas* (1982) and *Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.* (1993), to help determine the scientific status of expert testimony and theories.

What role did falsifiability play in the *McLean v. Arkansas* case regarding 'creation science'?

In the *McLean v. Arkansas* case, falsifiability was presented as a key characteristic of science. Judge William Overton used this criterion to rule that 'creation science' was not scientific and therefore should not be taught as such in Arkansas public schools.

How do statistical theories interact with the concept of falsifiability?

Statistical theories often underpin the observations used to test scientific hypotheses. While Popper focused on logical falsifiability, statistical methods, including the use of null hypotheses and conventions, can indirectly contribute to falsification by establishing rules for accepting or rejecting potential falsifiers.

What are the four categories of falsificationism identified by Imre Lakatos?

Imre Lakatos categorized falsificationisms as: 1) Dogmatic (ignoring logical and methodological problems), 2) Methodological (addressing logical problems), 3) Naive Methodological (addressing logical but not practical problems), and 4) Sophisticated (attempting to address both logical and practical problems).

What is the Duhem-Quine thesis in relation to the falsification of scientific theories?

The Duhem-Quine thesis posits that it is impossible to definitively falsify a single hypothesis in isolation. This is because an observation that contradicts a prediction could be explained by flaws in auxiliary hypotheses or background assumptions, rather than the primary theory itself.

How did Karl Popper differentiate between a 'falsifier' and an 'actual falsification'?

Popper defined a 'falsifier' as a hypothetical state of affairs that logically contradicts a theory, thereby demonstrating its falsifiability. An 'actual falsification,' however, refers to the complex methodological process of disproving a theory, which Popper acknowledged involves practical challenges like the Duhem-Quine problem.

What was Thomas Kuhn's perspective on scientific progress compared to Popper's focus on falsification?

Kuhn emphasized periods of 'normal science' where scientists solve routine problems within an established paradigm, only questioning the paradigm's validity when it fails. Popper, conversely, focused on 'revolutions' and the role of falsification in driving scientific change and problem-solving.

Why did Popper classify astrology as a pseudoscience?

Popper considered astrology a pseudoscience because its theories and predictions were too imprecise to be falsifiable. He noted that astrologers could often adjust their explanations to fit contradictory evidence, rather than abandoning their core tenets.

What is the significance of 'basic statements' being accepted by convention in Popper's theory?

Basic statements are accepted by convention as part of the empirical language, providing a stable foundation for testing theories. This convention allows Popper to maintain the logical criterion of falsifiability, even when the empirical basis itself might be subject to revision.

How does Popper's concept of falsifiability relate to the idea of making theories predictive?

Popper argued that falsifiability is essential for making theories predictive and useful in practice. A theory's ability to prohibit certain states of affairs, making it falsifiable, is what allows it to generate testable predictions.

What did Popper mean by distinguishing between the 'logic' and 'methodology' of science?

Popper used this distinction to separate the formal, logical criterion of falsifiability from the practical, often informal, methods scientists use to conduct research, accept evidence, and test theories. He insisted that falsifiability itself is a logical concept, independent of methodological decisions.

How did Popper differentiate between scientific theories and metaphysical statements?

Popper argued that scientific theories must be falsifiable, meaning they can be contradicted by empirical observations. Metaphysical statements, while potentially useful, lack this empirical testability and are therefore not considered scientific in his framework.

What is the role of 'risky predictions' in Popper's evaluation of scientific theories?

Popper believed that theories making 'risky predictions'—predictions that are highly specific and unlikely to be true by chance—are preferable. If these risky predictions are corroborated through testing, it provides stronger support for the theory than for theories making vague or non-predictive claims.

What is the relationship between falsifiability and the demarcation problem?

Falsifiability serves as Karl Popper's proposed solution to the demarcation problem, which aims to distinguish genuine scientific theories from pseudoscience or non-science. A theory's falsifiability is considered the criterion for its scientific status.

How did Popper's view on falsifiability address the issue of psychoanalysis being unfalsifiable?

Popper criticized psychoanalysis, particularly the theories of Alfred Adler, for being unfalsifiable because they could explain virtually any observation. He argued that a theory's inability to exclude any possible outcome indicates a failure in its predictive power and scientific status.

What is the significance of 'intersubjective verifiability' in relation to falsifiability?

The 'material requirement' for basic statements, which are used to test theories, is inter-subjective verifiability. This means the observations must be communicable and repeatable by different observers, ensuring a shared basis for testing.

How did Lakatos view the possibility of making scientific progress rigorously justifiable?

Lakatos sought to formalize scientific progress by developing a methodology that could justify the choice between competing theories based on falsifications and corroborations. He urged Popper to adopt an inductive principle, though his own attempts to create such a formal methodology were ultimately seen as unsuccessful.

What is the core criticism leveled by Feyerabend against prescriptive scientific methodologies like falsificationism?

Paul Feyerabend argued against prescriptive methodologies, including falsificationism, contending that science progresses through diverse and often unconventional methods. He proposed 'epistemological anarchism' ('anything goes') as the only universally valid rule, suggesting that science's value lies in its results, not a rigid method.

What criticism did Sokal and Bricmont raise against falsifiability in their book *Fashionable Nonsense*?

Sokal and Bricmont criticized falsifiability as part of their broader critique of postmodernist epistemological relativism. They saw the misuse of scientific concepts by some postmodern thinkers as a reaction to, and misinterpretation of, Popper's philosophy of science.

How does the concept of 'theory-ladenness' of observation relate to the challenges of falsification?

The concept of 'theory-ladenness' suggests that all observations are influenced by existing theories and presuppositions. This complicates direct falsification, as it's difficult to isolate whether an observation contradicts the theory under test or the theoretical framework used for the observation itself.

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The Core Concept

Defining Falsifiability

Falsifiability is a fundamental criterion for evaluating scientific theories and hypotheses. A hypothesis is considered falsifiable if it can be logically contradicted by an empirical observation. This means there must exist a potential observation that, if true, would demonstrate the hypothesis to be false. It was prominently introduced by the philosopher of science Karl Popper in his seminal work, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1934).^{^A}

Popper's Solution

Popper proposed falsifiability as a cornerstone solution to two critical philosophical problems: the problem of induction and the demarcation problem. He argued that while universal laws (e.g., "All swans are white") cannot be definitively verified through observation (as one would need to observe all swans), they can be definitively falsified by a single contradictory observation (e.g., observing a black swan).^⁶ This asymmetry highlights the logical structure that allows for empirical testing.

Falsifiability vs. Verifiability

Popper contrasted falsifiability with the concept of verifiability, which was prevalent in logical positivism. Verifiability suggested that a statement must be confirmable by empirical evidence to be meaningful. Popper argued that this approach was insufficient for science. He posited that a theory's scientific status lies not in its ability to be proven true, but in its susceptibility to being proven false. This rigorous testing, he contended, is what distinguishes scientific inquiry from non-scientific or pseudoscientific claims.^¹⁵

Induction and Demarcation

The Problem of Induction

A central challenge in the philosophy of science is understanding how we move from specific observations to general scientific laws. This is known as the problem of induction, famously articulated by David Hume. Hume argued that there is no logical basis for assuming that future events will resemble past events. For instance, observing numerous white swans does not logically guarantee that the next swan observed will also be white. This logical gap means that universal statements cannot be definitively verified through empirical evidence.^⁶

Popper's Modus Tollens Solution

Popper accepted Hume's critique of induction but proposed that science does not rely on verification but on falsification. Using the logical structure of modus tollens, a hypothesis (L) that implies a prediction (Q) can be falsified if the prediction is not observed (¬Q). For example, if the law "All swans are white" (L) implies "This swan is white" (Q), then observing a swan that is not white (¬Q) logically falsifies the law. This process allows for rigorous testing and the elimination of false theories, driving scientific progress.^⁶

The Demarcation Problem

The demarcation problem concerns the criteria for distinguishing science from non-science and pseudoscience. Popper argued that falsifiability provides a robust solution. Theories that are inherently unfalsifiable, meaning they cannot be contradicted by any conceivable empirical observation (like certain psychoanalytic theories, as Popper noted), fail to qualify as scientific. Science, in Popper's view, must be open to empirical refutation; its theories must make risky predictions that could potentially prove them wrong.^¹⁵

Logic vs. Methodology

Popper's Distinction

Popper meticulously distinguished between the logic of science and its applied methodology. Falsifiability, in its purest sense, is a logical criterion based on the relationship between a theory and potential falsifying statements. It asserts that a theory is scientific if it logically prohibits certain observable states of affairs. This logical aspect is independent of the practical challenges of conducting experiments or interpreting their results.^³¹

The Duhem-Quine Thesis

The Duhem-Quine thesis posits that definitive experimental falsifications are impossible because any empirical test of a hypothesis relies on a complex web of background assumptions and auxiliary hypotheses. If a test fails, it is unclear whether the primary hypothesis or one of the auxiliary assumptions is at fault. This challenges the straightforward application of falsification, suggesting that a single observation cannot definitively falsify a theory in isolation.^³

Basic Statements

To address the logical requirements of falsification, Popper introduced the concept of "basic statements." These are singular, empirically testable statements that serve as the potential falsifiers of a theory. They must be communicable and verifiable inter-subjectively, meaning others can repeat the observation. While the acceptance of basic statements can involve methodological conventions and technological capabilities, their logical role is to provide concrete points of contradiction against universal laws.^⁴¹

Hume's Problem and Induction

The Human Element

Popper acknowledged Hume's argument that induction cannot be logically justified. He agreed that scientific progress is not achieved through a process of logical inference from observations but rather through conjecture and refutation. Popper viewed this process as a form of "quasi-induction" or "trial and error," akin to an evolutionary mechanism where theories that survive rigorous testing are provisionally accepted, while those that fail are discarded.^²⁰

Psychological vs. Epistemological Induction

While accepting Hume's point that induction cannot be logically justified, Popper distinguished this from the psychological or biological process of learning. He suggested that humans, like other animals, possess an innate capacity to learn from experience and form expectations, a process that is essential for survival but not subject to logical proof. However, he maintained that epistemology should focus on the logical aspects of knowledge, not its psychological origins.^²³

Pragmatic Acceptance

Instead of seeking a logical justification for induction, Popper focused on the pragmatic question of how scientists choose between competing hypotheses. He proposed that the best-tested hypothesis, the one that has survived the most rigorous critical discussion and empirical testing, should be provisionally accepted. This pragmatic approach emphasizes the ongoing process of critical evaluation rather than definitive proof.^²³

Practical Value and Application

Empirical Testing

The practical value of falsifiability lies in its role in guiding empirical testing. A theory's falsifiability ensures that it makes specific, testable predictions. The process of testing involves deducing consequences from the theory, comparing these consequences with observations, and, if a contradiction arises, using it to revise or reject the theory. This iterative process of conjecture and refutation is the engine of scientific progress.^⁴²

Technology and Precision

Maxwell highlighted that the falsifiability of a statement often depends on the precision of its terms and the availability of technology to test them. For instance, a statement like "All solids have a melting point" becomes more scientifically useful and falsifiable when an upper bound for melting points is specified or a method to calculate it is provided. Similarly, detecting neutrinos requires specific experimental setups, making statements about their emission falsifiable only when the detection method is clearly defined.^⁵⁸

Legal Precedent

The principle of falsifiability has found application in legal contexts, notably in the McLean v. Arkansas case and the Daubert standard in the United States. Courts have used falsifiability as a criterion to distinguish scientific evidence from non-scientific claims, ensuring that expert testimony is based on testable and refutable scientific principles rather than dogma or untestable assertions.^⁹¹^⁹²

Criticisms and Controversies

Lakatos's Falsificationism

Imre Lakatos, a student of Popper, developed "sophisticated falsificationism," which attempted to address the challenges posed by the Duhem-Quine thesis and the theory-ladenness of observation. Lakatos proposed that scientific progress is driven by "research programmes" that can be progressive or degenerative. However, his methodology, which relied on scientists' judgments, was criticized for lacking rigorous inductive rules and was seen by some as a form of epistemological anarchism.^¹⁴³

The Duhem-Quine Problem

Critics argue that Popper's logical criterion of falsifiability overlooks the practical difficulties highlighted by the Duhem-Quine thesis. If a theory is contradicted by an observation, it's often unclear whether the theory itself or an auxiliary hypothesis is responsible. This ambiguity means that actual falsification is not as straightforward as the logical criterion might suggest, leading to debates about whether Popper's distinction between logic and methodology adequately resolves these issues.^¹¹⁷

Unfalsifiable Statements

Some statements, while potentially useful, are inherently unfalsifiable. Examples include metaphysical statements or theories that are too vague or can explain any outcome. Popper considered astrology unfalsifiable due to its imprecise predictions and its ability to accommodate contradictory evidence through ad hoc explanations. Similarly, the Omphalos hypothesis, which suggests the world was created with the appearance of age, is unfalsifiable because it posits an untestable origin.^⁸⁸

Illustrative Examples

Newton's Theory

Popper used Newton's law of universal gravitation as an example of a falsifiable theory. A hypothetical observation, such as an apple falling upwards, would logically contradict the law and serve as a potential falsifier. While practical considerations like hidden strings might explain such an event, the logical possibility of such a contradiction demonstrates the theory's falsifiability. Popper emphasized that this logical aspect is key, regardless of methodological complexities.^⁶⁴

Evolution and Melanism

The phenomenon of industrial melanism in peppered moths serves as an example in evolutionary biology. The hypothesis that the relative fitness of the dark morph is high in industrial areas is falsifiable. Determining the environment (industrial vs. natural) and measuring the reproductive success (fitness) of the moths allows for empirical testing. If the dark moths do not exhibit higher survival and reproduction in polluted areas, the hypothesis is falsified.^⁶⁶

The Precambrian Rabbit

J. B. S. Haldane famously posed the hypothetical discovery of "fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era" as a basic statement that would falsify paleontological theories. Since rabbits are known to have evolved much later, finding such a fossil would contradict established timelines. This illustrates how specific, potentially contradictory observations can challenge scientific hypotheses, even if the discovery itself is highly improbable.^⁷¹

Falsifiability in Law and Statistics

Legal Standards

In legal proceedings, particularly concerning expert testimony, falsifiability is a critical component of the Daubert standard. Courts assess the scientific validity of evidence by examining whether the underlying theory or technique can be tested and potentially falsified. This ensures that scientific evidence presented in court is reliable and grounded in established scientific methodology, distinguishing it from speculative or untestable claims.^{^D}

Statistical Hypothesis Testing

Statistical theories often employ falsifiability through hypothesis testing. Researchers formulate a null hypothesis (e.g., "there is no effect") and an alternative hypothesis. Statistical methods are used to determine if the observed data provide sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis. While statistical inference involves probabilities and conventions, the underlying principle is to seek evidence that could potentially falsify the hypothesis being tested.^¹⁰²

The Limits of Falsification

Despite its utility, the application of falsifiability faces challenges, particularly in complex scientific domains. The interpretation of experimental results, the role of auxiliary hypotheses, and the probabilistic nature of some scientific laws mean that direct, unambiguous falsification is not always achievable. This has led to ongoing philosophical discussions about the precise demarcation between science and pseudoscience and the practical implementation of Popper's criterion.^⁷

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References

This perspective can be found in any text on model theory. For example, see Ebbinghaus 2017.

Surveys were mailed to all active U.S. district court judges in November 1998 (N = 619). 303 usable surveys were obtained for a response rate of 51%. See Krafka 2002, p. 9 in archived pdf.

Popper 2002, p. 32.

Shea 2020, Sec. 2.c.

Popper 2002, pp. 64â65.

Popper 2002, p. 65 Footnote *1.

Fisher 2010, p. 34.

Cruzan 2018, p. 156.

Muehlenbein 2010, p. 21.

Ridley 2003, website complement.

Popper 1983, Introduction, xx.

Darwin 1869, pp. 72.

Popper 1995, Chap. 15.

Popper 1995, Chap.15 sec. III (page 101).

Feyerabend 1978b, p. 120.

Feyerabend 1981, p. 148.

Couvalis 1997, pp. 74-75.

Feldman & Williams 2007, p. 151.

Yehuda 2018, p. 41.

Kuhn 1970, pp. 7â8.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Falsifiability Wikipedia page

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The Crucible of Knowledge

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

The Core Concept 💡

✅ Defining Falsifiability

⚖️ Popper's Solution

↔️ Falsifiability vs. Verifiability

Induction and Demarcation 🤔

🔄 The Problem of Induction

➡️ Popper's Modus Tollens Solution

📍 The Demarcation Problem

Logic vs. Methodology ⚙️

🧠 Popper's Distinction

🧩 The Duhem-Quine Thesis

📜 Basic Statements

Hume's Problem and Induction ⏳

🚶 The Human Element

🧠 Psychological vs. Epistemological Induction

💡 Pragmatic Acceptance

Practical Value and Application 🛠️

📈 Empirical Testing

🔬 Technology and Precision

⚖️ Legal Precedent

Criticisms and Controversies ⚠️

🤔 Lakatos's Falsificationism

❓ The Duhem-Quine Problem

🤷 Unfalsifiable Statements

Illustrative Examples 🔬

🍎 Newton's Theory

🦋 Evolution and Melanism

🐇 The Precambrian Rabbit

Falsifiability in Law and Statistics ⚖️

🏛️ Legal Standards

📊 Statistical Hypothesis Testing

❓ The Limits of Falsification

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

The Core Concept

Defining Falsifiability

Popper's Solution

Falsifiability vs. Verifiability

Induction and Demarcation

The Problem of Induction

Popper's Modus Tollens Solution

The Demarcation Problem

Logic vs. Methodology

Popper's Distinction

The Duhem-Quine Thesis

Basic Statements

Hume's Problem and Induction

The Human Element

Psychological vs. Epistemological Induction

Pragmatic Acceptance

Practical Value and Application

Empirical Testing

Technology and Precision

Legal Precedent

Criticisms and Controversies

Lakatos's Falsificationism

The Duhem-Quine Problem

Unfalsifiable Statements

Illustrative Examples

Newton's Theory

Evolution and Melanism

The Precambrian Rabbit

Falsifiability in Law and Statistics

Legal Standards

Statistical Hypothesis Testing

The Limits of Falsification

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice