What are some of the historical and ongoing causes proposed for female infanticide in India?

Several factors have been proposed as causes for female infanticide in India, including poverty, the dowry system, births to unmarried women, the presence of deformed infants, famine, a lack of support services, and maternal postpartum depression.

What is the legal definition of infanticide according to the Indian Penal Code?

Section 315 of the Indian Penal Code defines infanticide as the intentional killing of an infant within the age group of 0 to 1 year.

How do some scholarly interpretations broaden the definition of infanticide beyond the legal definition?

Some scholars, such as postcolonial feminists Renu Dube, Reena Dube, and Rashmi Bhatnagar, adopt a wider scope for infanticide, encompassing practices from foeticide up to femicide at any age. Anthropologist Barbara Miller uses the term to cover all non-accidental child deaths up to around age 15-16, including both direct killing and passive neglect.

What is neonaticide, and how is it related to infanticide?

Neonaticide is specifically the killing of a child within the first 24 hours after birth. It is sometimes considered a distinct category of study within the broader topic of infanticide.

What was the official rate of infanticide reported in India in 2010?

In 2010, the National Crime Records Bureau reported approximately 100 cases of male and female infanticide, resulting in an official rate of less than one case per million people.

How is female infanticide in India linked to the country's gender imbalance?

The practices of female infanticide and sex-selective abortion are cited as contributing factors to a gender imbalance that has become increasingly pronounced since the 1991 Census of India.

When and where did British officials first become aware of the practice of female infanticide in India?

British officials first became aware of female infanticide in 1789 in the Benares State, located in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.

Which specific communities were identified by colonial officials as practicing female infanticide?

Colonial officials identified the practice among various high-caste communities in northern, western, and central India, including Rajputs, Ahirs, Bedis, Gurjars, Jats, Lewa Kanbis, Mohyal Brahmins, and Patidars.

According to Marvin Harris, what was the primary economic motivation behind female infanticide among elite groups in colonial India?

Marvin Harris proposed that the main economic reason was the desire among elite land-owning and warrior groups, like the Rajputs, to avoid splitting ancestral lands and wealth among too many heirs and to circumvent the costs associated with dowries for daughters.

How did Marvin Harris connect female infanticide to population control in pre-industrial societies?

Harris suggested that in pre-industrial societies, the devaluation of female children, coupled with the high mortality rate among male warriors, made female infanticide a form of population control.

What alternative theory did sociobiologists, such as Mildred Dickemann, propose regarding the purpose of female infanticide?

Sociobiologists like Mildred Dickemann theorized that female infanticide served to expand population, arguing that elites sought to maximize reproduction by favoring male offspring, who had greater natural fecundity, thus ensuring the lineage grew more extensively.

What criticisms did Kristen Hawkes offer regarding the theories of Marvin Harris and sociobiologists on female infanticide?

Kristen Hawkes criticized Harris by noting that increasing the female population would enhance child-bearing capacity and strengthen marriage alliances. She countered the sociobiological view by pointing out that if elites aimed to maximize reproduction, poorer populations, who should logically seek to minimize it, did not appear to practice male infanticide.

What challenges exist regarding the reliability of colonial-era reports on female infanticide in India?

Modern scholars question the reliability of colonial reports because they were often made from a distance, without deep understanding of the social, economic, and cultural contexts, and were sometimes based on hearsay or biased perspectives. Bernard Cohn described female infanticide during this period as a 'statistical crime' due to the difficulty of proving individual cases.

How did the Indian Rebellion of 1857 influence the British approach to investigating social practices like infanticide?

Following the rebellion, British administrators became more hesitant to interfere in the private affairs of Indian communities, a reluctance that affected their approach to investigating practices like infanticide.

What specific methods of female infanticide were reportedly used during the colonial period?

Reported methods of outright female infanticide included poisoning, often with substances like opium or arsenic, as well as strangulation and suffocation.

How was the administration of poison in infanticide described as 'murder by proxy'?

David Arnold described poison administration as 'murder by proxy' because the male perpetrator was typically removed from the direct act, allowing him to maintain a claim of innocence.

What was the significance of the Female Infanticide Prevention Act of 1870?

This act made the practice of female infanticide illegal in specific British Indian regions, namely Punjab and the North-Western Provinces, with the potential for broader application at the Governor-General's discretion.

How did famines impact the incidence of infanticide in India during the 19th and early 20th centuries?

During periods of severe famine, desperate parents resorted to infanticide, selling children to buy food for the family, or abandoning them, exacerbating the problem.

What connection did Mara Hvistendahl suggest between colonial economic policies and female infanticide?

Mara Hvistendahl's research indicated a direct correlation between the taxation policies implemented by the East India Company and an increase in female infanticide cases, particularly in the period following Indian independence.

What demographic trends related to sex ratios were observed in India between the 1881 and 1941 censuses?

These decennial censuses consistently revealed a skewed sex ratio, with a higher number of males than females, especially pronounced in the northern and western regions of India.

Which region in India was an exception to the general trend of excess males during the colonial period, and why?

South India was an exception, reporting an excess of females. This phenomenon is partly attributed by scholars to the selective emigration of males from the southern region.

How difficult is it to obtain accurate data on female infanticide, and how is its frequency often estimated?

Obtaining accurate data on female infanticide is challenging due to its under-reported nature. Its frequency is often indirectly estimated by analyzing the birth sex ratio, which is the ratio of boys to girls at birth or in young age groups.

What is considered the natural sex ratio at birth, and what does a deviation from this ratio suggest?

The natural sex ratio at birth is typically considered to be around 106 boys per 100 girls. A ratio significantly higher than this range is often interpreted as evidence of sex-selective practices like infanticide or abortion.

Besides India, which other countries have reported high sex ratios attributed partly to female infanticide?

Countries such as China, Pakistan, Vietnam, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and several Southeast European nations have reported higher sex ratios, with female infanticide being one of the attributed factors.

What are the primary suggested reasons for the high birth sex ratio observed in India?

The high birth sex ratio in India is attributed to several factors, including regional female foeticide facilitated by amniocentesis due to patrilineal cultural norms, the under-reporting of female births, a trend towards smaller family sizes, and the practice of selectively stopping childbearing once a male child is born.

What did the 2020 UNFPA report estimate regarding missing girls in India?

A 2020 report by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) estimated that approximately 45.8 million girls were missing in India due to practices of pre- and post-birth selection.

What did a Pew Research study estimate about the number of missing girls in India between 2009 and 2019?

A study by the Pew Research Center estimated that at least 9 million girls were 'missing' in India between 2009 and 2019, as a consequence of female infanticide.

How does extreme poverty contribute to the practice of female infanticide in India?

Extreme poverty, which limits a family's ability to afford raising a child, is identified as a significant reason for female infanticide, a pattern observed historically across various cultures.

How is the dowry system in India linked to the practice of female infanticide?

The dowry system is a major contributing factor, as the fear of not being able to provide a sufficient dowry for a daughter, and the potential social consequences, leads families to resort to female infanticide or sex-selective abortion.

What other reasons, beyond poverty and dowry, are cited for infanticide in India?

Other reasons cited for infanticide include the birth of unwanted children, such as those conceived through rape, the birth of deformed children in impoverished families, and children born to unmarried mothers who lack access to reliable contraception.

What role do mental health issues and relationship difficulties play in female infanticide?

Factors such as relationship difficulties, low income, lack of social support, and mental health conditions like postpartum depression have been reported as contributing reasons for female infanticide in India.

How does malnutrition, particularly micronutrient deficiency, impact female infants in India?

Malnutrition, especially deficiencies in micronutrients and vitamins, adversely affects female infants, contributing to higher mortality rates compared to male infants.

What was the objective of the 'Girl Child Protection Scheme' launched in India in 1991?

The 'Girl Child Protection Scheme' was designed as a long-term financial incentive for rural families, requiring them to meet certain obligations, such as maternal sterilization, in return for the state investing funds for the daughter's future use, like marriage or higher education.

Describe the 'baby cradle scheme' introduced by the Indian government in 1992.

The 'baby cradle scheme' allowed families to anonymously surrender infants for adoption without formal procedures, with cradles placed outside state-run health facilities. It was piloted in Tamil Nadu and included incentives for families with multiple daughters.

What criticisms were raised against the 'baby cradle scheme'?

While praised for potentially saving infant lives, the scheme faced criticism from human rights groups for possibly encouraging child abandonment and reinforcing the societal devaluation of women.

What initiative was launched in response to the declining child sex ratio observed after the 2011 census?

The 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao' (BBBP) initiative was introduced to combat gender discrimination and ensure the survival, protection, and education of girls.

What did the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) term the demographic shortfall of women in its 2005 report?

In its 2005 report, 'Women in an Insecure World,' the DCAF referred to the demographic shortfall of women due to gender-related issues as a 'secret genocide'.

What is the subject of the 2012 documentary 'It's a Girl: The Three Deadliest Words in the World'?

The documentary 'It's a Girl: The Three Deadliest Words in the World' explores the issue of female infanticide, with a specific focus on its prevalence in China and India.

How did Elisabeth Bumiller characterize the motivations behind female infanticide in her book about women in India?

In her 1991 book, Elisabeth Bumiller described female infanticide not as the act of 'monsters,' but as a 'last resort' for impoverished and uneducated women who believed they were acting in the best interest of their families.

What award did the 1998 documentary 'Gift of A Girl Female Infanticide' receive?

The documentary 'Gift of A Girl Female Infanticide,' which examined the prevalence of the practice and efforts to eradicate it, received an award from the Association for Asian Studies.

What is the Indian Penal Code's definition of infanticide, and how does it differentiate from other crimes against children?

The Indian Penal Code, specifically Section 315, defines infanticide as the killing of an infant aged 0-1 year. This definition distinguishes it from other offenses like foeticide (killing a fetus) and murder (killing of a person).

What specific groups were noted by Jonathan Duncan in 1789 regarding female infanticide?

Jonathan Duncan noted the practice of female infanticide among members of the ruling Rajput clan in the Benares State.

What was the reported situation in entire taluks of the Jadeja Rajputs in Gujarat concerning female children in 1817?

In 1817, officials observed that female infanticide was so prevalent among the Jadeja Rajputs in the Jamnagar kingdom that entire taluks reportedly had no surviving female children of the clan.

How did colonial administrators view the practice of female infanticide in relation to proving it in court?

Colonial administrators often found it difficult to prove individual cases of infanticide in court, leading them to refrain from making direct accusations despite speculating that entire clans practiced it. This contributed to it being labeled a 'statistical crime'.

What did the 2011 census data reveal about the child sex ratio in India?

The 2011 census data indicated a significant decline in the child sex ratio across India, prompting government action.

What is the significance of the term 'gendercide' in relation to female infanticide?

Gendercide refers to the systematic killing of a particular sex. Female infanticide is a form of gendercide, specifically targeting female infants.

What is the stated goal of the 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao' (BBBP) initiative?

The BBBP initiative aims to prevent gender discrimination and ensure the survival, protection, and education of girls in India.

What specific substances were historically used for abortion and sometimes infanticide in India?

Substances like the root of *plumbago rosea* were used for abortion, and arsenic was used for both abortion and, ironically, as an aphrodisiac and treatment for male impotence, but also potentially for infanticide.

How did the practice of female infanticide vary between different regions of India during the colonial period?

Female infanticide was most widespread in the north-west regions of India, while the southern region reported an excess of females, possibly due to male emigration.

What is the relationship between malnutrition and female infant mortality in India?

Malnutrition, particularly deficiencies in micronutrients and vitamins, has a detrimental effect on female infants, contributing to higher mortality rates among them.

Female Infanticide In India Wiki: Echoes of Inequality: Understanding Female Infanticide in India

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Defining the Phenomenon

Legal and Scholarly Perspectives

Female infanticide in India is characterized by the intentional killing of female infants. Legally, under Section 315 of the Indian Penal Code, infanticide refers to the killing of an infant within the 0-1 year age group, distinguishing it from foeticide and murder.^[2]^[a] However, scholarly discourse often employs a broader definition. Some researchers, including postcolonial feminists, extend the term to encompass femicide from foeticide up to an unspecified age. Anthropologists like Barbara Miller have used 'infanticide' for convenience to cover all non-accidental deaths of children up to approximately age 15-16, recognizing that the act can manifest as direct killing or passive neglect and starvation.^[7] Neonaticide, the killing of a child within 24 hours of birth, is sometimes treated as a distinct area of study.

Historical Trajectory

Colonial Era Observations

The practice of female infanticide gained prominence in the awareness of British officials during the colonial period, first noted in 1789 in the Benares State. Reports indicated its prevalence among high-caste communities, particularly Rajputs, in northern and western India. By the mid-19th century, some regions were noted for having virtually no surviving female children within certain clans. The British administration identified various high-caste groups, including Ahirs, Bedis, Gurjars, Jats, Khatris, Lewa Kanbis, Mohyal Brahmins, and Patidars, as practitioners.^[8]^[10] The Female Infanticide Prevention Act of 1870 was enacted to criminalize the practice in specific regions, with provisions for its extension.^[26]

Famines and Economic Policies

Historical analysis suggests a correlation between periods of severe famine and increased instances of infanticide. The widespread famines of the 19th and early 20th centuries, which caused millions of deaths from starvation, reportedly led desperate families to kill infants, sell children for food, or abandon them. Scholars like Gupta and Shuzhou posit that these events, coupled with poverty, deeply influenced attitudes towards female infant mortality. Furthermore, documents from the colonial administration suggest a link between the East India Company's taxation policies and the rise in female infanticide.^[35]

Theoretical Explanations

Cultural Materialism vs. Sociobiology

Anthropological theories offer divergent explanations. Marvin Harris, a proponent of cultural materialism, argued that female infanticide among elite groups was primarily economic, aimed at preserving land and wealth by limiting heirs and avoiding dowry payments. He suggested that the societal need for male warriors also devalued female children. Conversely, sociobiologists, such as Mildred Dickemann, posited that female infanticide served to maximize reproduction among elites by favoring male offspring, whose reproductive potential was considered greater. Kristen Hawkes has critiqued both theories, arguing that maximizing female births would increase overall reproduction and strengthen inter-village alliances, and that the sociobiological corollary of minimizing reproduction among the poor was not supported by evidence of male infanticide.^[13]^[12]

Data Reliability and Demographics

Challenges in Measurement

Objectively assessing the frequency of infanticide is inherently difficult due to a lack of reliable data. Scholars like Susan Scrimshaw highlight that not only the precise incidence of female infanticide but also the subtle differential care between male and female infants remains elusive. Indirect estimations often rely on observed sex ratios at birth or in the 0-6 age groups, with deviations from the natural ratio (typically 103-107 males per 100 females) being interpreted as indicative of sex-selective practices.^[39]^[42]

Historical and Contemporary Sex Ratios

Historical census data from 1881 to 1941 consistently showed a skewed sex ratio favoring males in India, particularly pronounced in the northern and western regions. This imbalance has persisted and, according to some analyses, intensified since the 1991 Census. Contemporary reports, such as those from the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and Pew Research, indicate millions of 'missing' girls due to pre- and post-birth selection practices, including infanticide and sex-selective abortion.^[55]^[56] The National Crime Records Bureau reported approximately 100 cases of infanticide in 2010, a figure widely considered an underestimation of the actual crime rate.^[52]

Underlying Drivers

Socio-Economic Factors

Extreme poverty, coupled with the inability to afford raising a child, is cited as a primary reason for infanticide, a phenomenon observed across various cultures and historical periods. The deeply entrenched dowry system in India, despite legal prohibitions, also contributes significantly. The fear of being unable to provide a suitable dowry, leading to social ostracization, incentivizes the selective elimination of female infants.^[57]^[61]

Family and Social Pressures

Beyond economic pressures, other factors contribute to female infanticide. These include the birth of unwanted children, such as those conceived through rape, the presence of deformed infants in impoverished families, and births to unmarried mothers lacking access to reliable contraception. Relationship difficulties, low income, lack of social support, and maternal mental health issues like postpartum depression have also been identified as contributing factors.^[65]^[64]

Technological Influence

The increased accessibility and affordability of private ultrasound scanning centers, which can determine the sex of a fetus, have been identified as a major driver for the rise in sex-selective abortion and, by extension, female infanticide. This technological advancement allows parents to act on existing preferences for male children.^[55]

Societal and State Responses

Government Initiatives

In response to the persistent issue, the Indian government has implemented various schemes. The Girl Child Protection Scheme (launched 1991) offered long-term financial incentives contingent on family obligations like sterilization. The "baby cradle scheme," piloted in Tamil Nadu in 1992, allowed anonymous child abandonment, aiming to save infant girls, though it faced criticism for potentially encouraging abandonment and reflecting the low status of women. Alarmed by declining child sex ratios, the government introduced the Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (BBBP) initiative in 2011 to combat gender discrimination and promote girls' survival, protection, and education.^[70]^[71]^[73]

International Context and Reactions

Global Perspectives

The phenomenon of female infanticide and gendercide has drawn international attention. Reports from organizations like the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) have described the demographic shortfall of women as a form of "secret genocide." Documentaries such as "It's a Girl: The Three Deadliest Words in the World" have focused on the issue in India and China. Scholarly works, like Elisabeth Bumiller's "May You be the Mother of a Hundred Sons," explore the complex interplay of poverty, education, and cultural norms driving these practices, framing them not as acts of barbarism but as desperate measures by women facing severe societal constraints.^[74]^[76]^[77]

Further Exploration

Scholarly References

Source Citations

The information presented herein is meticulously drawn from established academic sources. The following list provides the citations referenced throughout this document, enabling further verification and deeper study.

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References

Craig (2004): referring to the United Kingdom Infanticide Act 1938.

GA Oddie (1994), Orientalism and British Protestant missionary constructions of India in the nineteenth century, Journal of South Asian Studies, 17(2), pp. 27â42

B Murton (2000), Famine, in The Cambridge World History of Food 2, pp. 1411â1427, Cambridge University Press

Mike Davis (2001), Late Victorian Holocausts: El NiÃ±o Famines and the Making of the Third World, pp. 7â8, Verso

Mike Davis (2004), Liberation Ecologies: Environment, Development, and Social Movements, pp. 44â49, Routledge

William Digby, The Famine Campaign in Southern India (Madras and Bombay): 1876â1878, pp. 458â459, Longmans London

Visaria, Visaria & Patel (1983), p. 499 with footnote 2

Visaria, Visaria & Patel (1983), p. 499 with footnote 1

Hausfater (2008), pp. 445â450 (Susan Scrimshaw)

Therese Hesketh and Zhu Wei Xing, Abnormal sex ratios in human populations: Causes and consequences, PNAS, 5 September 2006, vol. 103, no. 36, pp 13271-13275

Shelley Clark, Son preference and sex composition of children: Evidence from India, Demography, February 2000, Volume 37, Issue 1, pp 95â108

Perwez & Jeffrey, Declining Child Sex Ratio and Sex-Selection in India â A Demographic Epiphany?, E&P Weekly, 18 August 2012, Vol. XLVII, No. 33, pp. 73â77

M Spinelli (2002), Infanticide: contrasting views, Archives of Womenâs Mental Health, 8(1), pp. 15â24

Chandran et al (2002), Post-partum depression in a cohort of women from a rural area of Tamil Nadu, India: Incidence and risk factors, The British Journal of Psychiatry, 181(6), pp. 499â504

Chandra et al, Infanticidal ideas and infanticidal behavior in Indian women with severe postpartum psychiatric disorders, J Nerv Ment Dis. 2002 Jul 190(7), pp. 457â61

A full list of references for this article are available at the Female infanticide in India Wikipedia page

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Echoes of Inequality

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining the Phenomenon ⚖️

📜 Legal and Scholarly Perspectives

Historical Trajectory ⏳

🏛️ Colonial Era Observations

📉 Famines and Economic Policies

Theoretical Explanations 🧠

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Cultural Materialism vs. Sociobiology

Data Reliability and Demographics 📊

❓ Challenges in Measurement

📈 Historical and Contemporary Sex Ratios

Underlying Drivers 💡

💰 Socio-Economic Factors

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Family and Social Pressures

🔬 Technological Influence

Societal and State Responses 🛡️

📜 Government Initiatives

International Context and Reactions 🌍

🗣️ Global Perspectives

Further Exploration 📚

🔗 Related Topics and Resources

Scholarly References 📖

📝 Source Citations

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining the Phenomenon

Legal and Scholarly Perspectives

Historical Trajectory

Colonial Era Observations

Famines and Economic Policies

Theoretical Explanations

Cultural Materialism vs. Sociobiology

Data Reliability and Demographics

Challenges in Measurement

Historical and Contemporary Sex Ratios

Underlying Drivers

Socio-Economic Factors

Family and Social Pressures

Technological Influence

Societal and State Responses

Government Initiatives

International Context and Reactions

Global Perspectives

Further Exploration

Related Topics and Resources

Scholarly References

Source Citations

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice for Scholars