What is the Chinese historical exonym "Five Barbarians" (Wu Hu)?

The term "Five Barbarians," also known as Wu Hu in Chinese (五胡), is a historical exonym used in China to refer to five ancient non-Han peoples. These groups immigrated to northern China during the Eastern Han dynasty and later overthrew the Western Jin dynasty, establishing their own kingdoms in the 4th to 5th centuries.

Which five specific non-Han peoples are historically categorized as the "Five Barbarians"?

The five peoples traditionally categorized as the Five Barbarians are the Xiongnu, Jie, Xianbei, Qiang, and Di.

When did the Five Barbarians immigrate to northern China and subsequently establish their own kingdoms?

These groups immigrated to northern China during the Eastern Han dynasty. They later overthrew the Western Jin dynasty and established their own kingdoms in the 4th to 5th centuries.

What is the chronological origin of the term "Five Barbarians" or "Wu Hu"?

The earliest known usage of the phrase "Five Barbarians" or "Wu Hu" comes from an edict issued by Empress Dowager Chu Suanzi in 357 AD, when she ended her regency. This edict is recorded in the *Book of Jin*, compiled in 648 AD during the Tang dynasty.

Besides "Five Barbarians," what other terms have been used to refer to non-Chinese groups during this historical period?

Other expressions used to generally refer to non-Chinese groups during this era include the "Four Barbarians" (四夷) and "Six Barbarians" (六夷).

How did modern historians like Chen Yinke and Zhou Yiliang interpret the use of "Five Barbarians" in certain historical contexts?

Modern historians such as Chen Yinke and Zhou Yiliang suggested that the term "Five Barbarians" in some historical records, like Fu Jian's quote from the *Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms*, might have referred to the theoretical concept of the "Five Virtues of Beginning and End." This concept was often used by Chinese dynasties to legitimize their rule.

When did the specific categorization of the "Five Barbarians" become widely accepted, and who was instrumental in this?

The categorization of the "Five Barbarians" as Xiongnu, Jie, Xianbei, Di, and Qiang became widely accepted during the Southern Song dynasty. This was largely due to the annotation of the *Zizhi Tongjian* by Hu Sanxing, which affirmed the view previously defined by Wang Yinglin.

What diverse ethnic stocks are believed to have comprised the groups collectively known as the Five Barbarians?

The Five Barbarians were a mix of tribes from various ethnic stocks, including proto-Mongolic, Turkic, Tibetan, and Yeniseian peoples. Some scholars further divide them into two Turkic tribes, one Tungusic tribe, and two Tibetan tribes, or into Tibetan and Altaic groups.

What was the general situation of ethnic groups in northern China since the later Han dynasty?

Since the later Han dynasty, northern China was inhabited by various ethnic groups from the north and west. These peoples were often subjects of the Han, engaged in agriculture, and served in the military, while also undergoing varying degrees of Sinicization.

What concern arose among Han officials regarding these non-Han groups during the Western Jin period?

By the Western Jin period, the population of these non-Han groups had grown substantially. This growth became a cause for concern among some officials within the imperial court, leading to discussions about their presence and potential for unrest.

What proposal did minister Jiang Tong make regarding these tribes, and was it implemented?

Minister Jiang Tong proposed relocating these tribes outside the borders of the empire in his essay *Xi Rong Lun* (Discussion on Relocating the Rong Tribe). However, these proposals were disregarded by the court.

What role did the "barbarian" tribes play during the collapse of central Jin authority and the subsequent upheaval?

As central authority collapsed due to the War of the Eight Princes, many of these "barbarian" groups rebelled. Some joined forces with their Han Chinese compatriots in the Upheaval of the Five Barbarians, while others initially fought on the side of the Jin dynasty.

What historical period is collectively known as the Sixteen Kingdoms?

The Sixteen Kingdoms refers to the period from the 4th to the early 5th century when several states were founded by the "Five Barbarians" and other non-Han groups in northern China and Sichuan, following the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty.

What was the historical relationship between the Xiongnu and the Han dynasty prior to the Eastern Han period?

The Xiongnu empire was once a powerful adversary to the Han dynasty, ruling over the steppes of East Asia. However, by the 1st century AD, their power had significantly declined due to defeats by the Han, internal conflicts, and natural disasters.

When and how did the Southern Xiongnu become a vassal of the Han dynasty?

In 50 AD, the Southern Xiongnu branch became a vassal to the Han dynasty. This occurred after the Xiongnu empire split into two, and the Southern branch subsequently submitted to Han authority.

What happened to the Southern Xiongnu people and their leadership after becoming vassals?

The court of the chanyu was moved to Xihe Commandery in Bing province, and their people were resettled across frontier commanderies within the Great Wall. They served the Han by guarding the northern borders and even helped defeat the Northern Xiongnu.

What action did the warlord Cao Cao take regarding the Southern Xiongnu in 216 AD?

In 216 AD, the warlord Cao Cao abolished the chanyu office and divided the Southern Xiongnu into Five Divisions, resettling them around Taiyuan Commandery. This action marked a decline in the Xiongnu's unified identity.

What surname did many descendants of the Southern Xiongnu adopt, and what was their motivation?

Many descendants of the Southern Xiongnu adopted the surname "Liu." They did this to claim legitimacy by asserting descent from Han princesses through heqin marriages, thereby linking themselves to the Han dynasty's legacy.

Who was Liu Yuan, and what significant role did he play in 304 AD?

Liu Yuan, a descendant of the Southern Xiongnu imperial family, founded the Han-Zhao dynasty in 304 AD. He did this during the height of the War of the Eight Princes, claiming direct descent from the Southern Xiongnu chanyus and portraying his state as a restoration of the Han dynasty.

What is the debated origin of the Jie people?

The exact origins of the Jie people are still debated by modern scholars. Theories suggest they may have originated from the Tocharian or Eastern Iranian peoples of Sogdia, or alternatively from the Yeniseian people.

What event in 303 AD significantly impacted the Jie and other hu people in Bing province?

A great famine broke out in Bing province in 303 AD. This led to many Jie and other hu people being displaced, subsequently captured, and sold into slavery by the provincial inspector, scattering them across Hebei and Shandong.

Who was Shi Le, and what dynasty did he found?

Shi Le was a prominent Jie leader and descendant of the Qiangqu tribe of the Southern Xiongnu. He founded the Later Zhao dynasty in 319 AD, which dominated northern China for a significant period before its collapse in 351 AD.

From whom did the Xianbei and Wuhuan people splinter, and when did this occur?

The Xianbei and Wuhuan were groups that splintered from the Donghu people. This fragmentation occurred after the Donghu were defeated by the Xiongnu in the 3rd century BC.

What region did the Xianbei occupy, and when did they begin to do so?

The Xianbei began occupying the Mongolian Plateau around 93 AD. This followed the forced migration of the Northern Xiongnu to the northwest by the Han dynasty.

Who was Tanshihuai, and what impact did he have on the Xianbei?

Tanshihuai was a chieftain who unified the Xianbei in the mid-2nd century AD. Under his leadership, the unified Xianbei launched continuous raids against the northern borders of the Han dynasty.

How did the Xianbei play a role in the Jin princely civil wars?

The Xianbei tribes became a deciding factor in the Jin princely civil wars. Local Xianbei and Wuhuan tribes, such as the Duan-Xianbei, allied with officials like Wang Jun, influencing the conflicts.

Which Xianbei groups founded states during the Sixteen Kingdoms period, and which was most significant?

The Murong, Qifu, and Tufa tribes were prominent Xianbei groups that founded several states during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Most importantly, the Tuoba clan of Dai founded the Northern Wei dynasty, which eventually reunified northern China.

Where did the Di people primarily reside before the Han dynasty's westward expansion?

The Di were a semi-nomadic people who resided in the western provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Sichuan. Before the Han dynasty's expansion in 111 BC, they were concentrated in areas like Wudu Commandery.

What action did Cao Cao take in 219 AD concerning the Di people?

In 219 AD, the warlord Cao Cao relocated approximately 50,000 Di people from Wudu Commandery. They were moved to Tianshui and Fufeng commanderies to prevent them from allying with his rival, Liu Bei.

Who was Qi Wannian, and what was the significance of his rebellion?

Qi Wannian was a Di chieftain who led various non-Han groups in a major rebellion between 296 and 299 AD. This rebellion devastated the Guanzhong region and displaced a significant portion of its population.

Which Di clan founded the Former Qin dynasty, and who was its most notable ruler?

The Fu clan, who remained in the northwest, founded the Former Qin dynasty. Its most notable ruler was Fu Jian (337–385 AD), under whom the dynasty briefly unified northern China.

What geographical area did the term "Qiang" broadly refer to?

The term "Qiang" broadly referred to various groups of semi-nomadic people originating from the regions of Qinghai and Gansu in western China.

How did many Qiang people interact with the Chinese court and Han Chinese settlers during the Western Han period?

Since the Western Han period, many Qiang submitted to the Chinese court and were permitted to settle in the Guanzhong region and along the Wei and Jing rivers. There, they practiced agriculture and lived alongside Han Chinese settlers.

What led to frequent large-scale rebellions by the Qiang?

Although many Qiang lived peacefully with Han settlers, they also faced oppression from local Han governors and officials. This mistreatment frequently led to large-scale rebellions in the northwest, which negatively impacted the Han military and economy.

When did the Qiang establish their first and only state within the Sixteen Kingdoms period?

The Qiang established their first and only state within the Sixteen Kingdoms period, the Later Qin dynasty, after the Battle of Fei River.

Who was Yao Xing, and what significant role did he play in the spread of Buddhism?

Yao Xing was the second ruler of the Later Qin dynasty. He was a key proponent in the spread of Buddhism, making it his state religion and actively sponsoring influential Buddhist translators like Kumārajīva.

Where were the Lushuihu people distributed, and what is debated about their origin?

The Lushuihu people were distributed between Zhangye in modern Gansu and central Shaanxi. Their origin is debated, with theories suggesting they were a generic term for hu tribes in northwestern China or descendants of the Lesser Yuezhi who intermingled with the Qiang.

Which clan of the Northern Liang dynasty was of Lushuihu ethnicity?

The Juqu clan of the Northern Liang dynasty was of Lushuihu ethnicity. However, due to their ancestors serving under the Xiongnu empire, they have been classified as "Xiongnu" in more recent historiographies to fit the Five Barbarians terminology.

What region was home to the Bandun Man, also known as the Cong people?

The region of Ba in eastern Sichuan was home to the Bandun Man, who were also known as the Cong people. Their name derived from the form of tax they paid to the Han dynasty, which was collected in a currency called cong.

What happened to many Cong people after Cao Cao conquered their region in 215 AD?

After Cao Cao conquered their region in 215 AD, many Cong people were resettled further north to Lueyang Commandery. There, they mingled with the local Di people, and this mixed group became known as the Ba-Di.

Where did the Dingling people originally live, and what happened to a branch that migrated west?

The Dingling people originally lived as a nomadic group south of Lake Baikal and were vassals of the Xiongnu empire. A branch migrated west into Kangju, becoming known as the Western Dingling, before eventually moving into China.

Which clan of the Western Dingling founded a short-lived dynasty?

The Zhai clan of the Western Dingling founded the short-lived Zhai Wei dynasty in 388 AD, after rebelling against the Former Qin. This state is not typically considered one of the Sixteen Kingdoms.

What was Goguryeo's relationship with the Murong-Xianbei during the Sixteen Kingdoms period?

Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, was a rival to the Murong-Xianbei during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. They engaged in conflicts, including an invasion by Former Yan in 342 AD.

Who was Gao Yun, and what is his historical significance?

Gao Yun was a member of the captured Goguryeo imperial family who served the Later Yan dynasty. He eventually overthrew the Murong rulers, and historians consider him either the last ruler of Later Yan or the first ruler of the Northern Yan dynasty.

From which people did the Wuhuan splinter, and where did they settle in exchange for military service?

The Wuhuan, much like the Xianbei, splintered from the Donghu people. Since the 2nd century BC, the Han dynasty allowed them to settle in northeastern commanderies such as Shanggu, Yuyang, Youbeiping, Liaodong, and Liaoxi, in return for their military services.

What event in 207 AD significantly weakened the Wuhuan?

The Wuhuan's power was broken after Cao Cao defeated them at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain in 207 AD. Following this defeat, many Wuhuan were relocated further south in China.

What did the name "Wuhuan" become a generic term for during the Jin dynasty and Sixteen Kingdoms period?

After their decline and assimilation, the name "Wuhuan" became a generic term for hu tribes that had Donghu backgrounds during the Jin dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms period.

What is the primary historical context for the term "Five Barbarians"?

The primary historical context for the term "Five Barbarians" relates to the period following the decline of the Western Jin dynasty, when these non-Han groups established numerous kingdoms in northern China, collectively known as the Sixteen Kingdoms.

How did the ethnic identity of the Xiongnu evolve after becoming vassals of the Han dynasty and later being divided by Cao Cao?

After becoming vassals and being resettled within the Great Wall, the Southern Xiongnu experienced increasing economic dependence and political interference from the Han. When Cao Cao abolished the chanyu office and divided them into Five Divisions, the Xiongnu declined as a unified entity, with many descendants adopting Han surnames and assimilating, while others mixed with different ethnic groups and were broadly referred to as hu.

What does the image caption "Distribution of the Five Barbarians during the Western Jin dynasty" describe?

The image caption describes a map that illustrates the geographical distribution of the Five Barbarians, a collective term for various non-Han ethnic groups, across China during the Western Jin dynasty. This visual representation helps understand their presence and influence during that era.

Five Barbarians Wiki: The Five Barbarians: A Chronicle of Ancient China's Northern Frontier

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Introduction

Defining the "Wu Hu"

The term "Five Barbarians," or Wu Hu (五胡) in Chinese, is a historical exonym used in Chinese historiography. It refers to five distinct non-Han ethnic groups who migrated into northern China during the Eastern Han dynasty. These groups played a pivotal role in the subsequent collapse of the Western Jin dynasty, establishing their own kingdoms across northern China and Sichuan during the tumultuous 4th and 5th centuries.

Historical Context and Impact

These peoples were not monolithic; they represented a complex tapestry of nomadic, semi-nomadic, and settled groups from the northern steppes and western highlands. Their presence and eventual assertion of power significantly altered the political and cultural landscape of China, ushering in the era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and profoundly influencing the subsequent development of Chinese history.

A Simplification of Reality

It is crucial to understand that "Five Barbarians" is a simplification. While five primary groups are most commonly cited, the historical period involved a greater diversity of non-Han peoples. The term itself gained wider currency and definition during the Southern Song dynasty, reflecting a later historical categorization rather than a contemporary self-designation by these groups.

The Five Primary Peoples

Xiongnu

Originating from the northern steppes, the Xiongnu were a powerful nomadic confederation that had long been rivals to the Han dynasty. Their ethnic identity remains debated, with theories suggesting Yeniseian or Iranian linguistic affiliations. By the Eastern Han, their empire had fractured, with the Southern Xiongnu becoming vassals and settling within China's borders.

Jie

Another pastoral people, the Jie were present in the northern province of Bing. Their origins are also uncertain, potentially linked to the Xiongnu, or possibly Yeniseian or Eastern Iranian peoples. The famous leader Shi Le rose from the Jie to establish the Later Zhao dynasty.

Xianbei

Likely of Mongolic origin, the Xianbei were a prominent nomadic group from the Mongolian Plateau. They unified under chieftains like Tanshihuai and frequently raided Han borders. Various Xianbei tribes, such as the Murong and Tuoba, later settled within China and played significant roles in establishing successor states.

Qiang

Hailing from the highlands of western China, the Qiang were predominantly herdsmen speaking Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) languages. They often submitted to Chinese rule but also engaged in frequent rebellions due to oppression. The Later Qin dynasty was founded by a Qiang chieftain.

Di

Also originating from the western highlands, the Di were farmers. Their linguistic affiliation is debated, possibly Sino-Tibetan or Turkic. They resided in regions like Gansu and Sichuan and were involved in numerous uprisings against Chinese dynasties, with groups like the Ba-Di founding the Cheng-Han regime.

Detailed Group Origins and Affiliations

Xiongnu: A Fading Power

By the 1st century AD, the Xiongnu empire had significantly weakened. The Southern Xiongnu became Han vassals, resettled across frontier commanderies. In 216 AD, Cao Cao abolished the chanyu office, dividing them into Five Divisions. This dispersal led to a decline in their distinct identity, with many adopting Han surnames and titles, though resentment persisted.

Descendants of the Southern Xiongnu invoked their lineage for legitimacy. Liu Yuan, of the Five Divisions, founded the Han-Zhao dynasty in 304 AD, claiming restoration of the Han. Helian Bobo of the Tiefu tribe (intermingled with Xianbei) founded the Helian Xia dynasty, emphasizing Xiongnu descent from the Xia dynasty.

Jie: Uncertain Roots

The Jie are characterized by their uncertain origins, with theories pointing towards Tocharian, Eastern Iranian, or Yeniseian peoples. A severe famine in 303 AD led to their displacement and enslavement. Despite their potentially small numbers, Shi Le's leadership propelled them to prominence, founding the Later Zhao dynasty, which dominated northern China for decades.

Following the collapse of Later Zhao and subsequent conflicts, the Jie largely disappear from historical records, though some key figures in later periods may have been their descendants.

Xianbei: Nomadic Dominance

After defeating the Donghu, the Xianbei occupied the Mongolian Plateau. Under chieftains like Tanshihuai, they posed a significant threat to the Han. Several Xianbei tribes, including the Murong and Tuoba, became Chinese vassals, settling within the Great Wall. These groups would later establish powerful states.

The Murong founded the Former Yan, Later Yan, Western Yan, and Southern Yan dynasties. The Tuoba established the Northern Wei dynasty, which eventually reunified northern China in 439 AD, marking the beginning of the Northern and Southern Dynasties period.

Di: Highland Dwellers

The Di were semi-nomadic peoples from western China. Initially Han tributaries, they frequently rebelled after the Han dynasty's decline. Cao Cao relocated some Di populations to mitigate their influence. Their internal divisions and migrations led to the formation of various regimes.

Notable Di-led states include the Cheng-Han dynasty in Sichuan (founded by the Ba-Di) and the Former Qin dynasty, which briefly unified northern China under Fu Jian. The Later Liang dynasty was also founded by a Di general.

Qiang: Western Herdsmen

The Qiang comprised various western semi-nomadic groups. Many submitted to Chinese rule, settling in regions like Guanzhong and practicing agriculture alongside Han settlers. Despite periods of cooperation, oppression often led to significant rebellions. They also served as soldiers for various Chinese states.

The Later Qin dynasty, a significant state during the Sixteen Kingdoms period, was founded by a Qiang chieftain. Yao Xing, its second ruler, was a notable patron of Buddhism.

Beyond the Core Five

Lushuihu

The Lushuihu, or "Lu River Barbarians," inhabited northwestern China. Their exact origins are debated, possibly being a generic term for local hu tribes or descendants of the Lesser Yuezhi mixed with Qiang. The Juqu clan, founders of the Northern Liang dynasty, were of Lushuihu ethnicity but were classified as Xiongnu to fit the prevailing terminology.

Ba Cong (Ba-Di)

Originating from the Ba region in eastern Sichuan, the Bandun Man, also known as Cong, mingled with local Di people after resettlement. These Ba-Di founded the Cheng-Han dynasty in Sichuan. Other Ba chieftains also led uprisings against the Han-Zhao dynasty.

Dingling

A nomadic people originally south of Lake Baikal, a branch migrated west and eventually into China. The Zhai clan of the Western Dingling founded the short-lived Zhai Wei dynasty. Those remaining on the northern steppes became known by later names like Chile or Gaoche.

Goguryeo

A kingdom from the Korean peninsula, Goguryeo was a rival to the Murong-Xianbei. Members of its imperial family were captured and resettled in China, with one, Gao Yun, eventually overthrowing the Murong rulers and potentially founding the Northern Yan dynasty.

Wuhuan

Like the Xianbei, the Wuhuan splintered from the Donghu. Allowed to settle within China for military service, their power was broken by Cao Cao in 207 AD. Relocated southward, they gradually assimilated, with their name becoming a generic term for hu tribes of Donghu background.

Dynastic Shifts and the Sixteen Kingdoms

The Upheaval of the Five Barbarians

During the War of the Eight Princes and the subsequent collapse of central authority in the Western Jin dynasty, many of these non-Han groups, alongside Han compatriots, rebelled. This period, known as the Upheaval of the Five Barbarians, led to the fall of the Western Jin and the establishment of numerous states in northern China and Sichuan.

The period following the Jin collapse is known as the Sixteen Kingdoms (304–439 AD). This era was characterized by fragmentation and conflict among various states founded by these diverse ethnic groups. Key states included Han-Zhao (Xiongnu), Later Zhao (Jie), Former Qin (Di), Former Yan (Xianbei), and Later Qin (Qiang). This period saw significant cultural exchange and conflict, laying the groundwork for the eventual reunification of northern China.

Sinicization and Identity

Throughout their interactions with Chinese dynasties, these groups underwent varying degrees of Sinicization, adopting Chinese administrative practices, language, and sometimes surnames. However, they often retained distinct cultural identities and grievances, which fueled their political ambitions and military actions. The legacy of the Five Barbarians highlights the complex interplay of ethnicity, power, and cultural transformation in ancient China.

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References

John W. Dardess, Governing China: 150-1850 Hackett Publishing 2010 p. 9

Vovin, Alexander. "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal 44/1 (2000), pp. 87-104.

Lewis, Mark Edward (2009). China between Empires: The Northern and Southern Dynasties. Harvard University Press. p. 82-83.

Guo Ji Zhongguo Yu Yan Xue Ping Lun, Volume 1, Issue 1, J. Benjamins 1996. page 7.

Tang China: vision and splendour of golden age, by Edmund Capon. 1989, page 14.

Renditions, Issues 15-18. Centre for Translation Projects, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1981, page 82.

China, by Pin-chia Kuo. Oxford University Press, 1970, page 36.

China: A Macro History, by Ray Huang. Routledge 2015. page.?

Fan Ye, "Book of Later Han" (Hou Han Shu), Ch. 79, f. 7b

and in Bichurin N.A., Collection of information on peoples in Central Asia in ancient times", vol. 1, Sankt Petersburg, 1851, pp. 146â147 (In Russian)

in Taskin B.S., "Materials on SÃ¼nnu history", Science, Moscow, 1973, pp. 95-96, 154 (In Russian)

A full list of references for this article are available at the Five Barbarians Wikipedia page

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This is not historical advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for scholarly research or professional historical consultation. Always refer to primary sources and consult with qualified historians or academics for in-depth study and interpretation. Never disregard professional historical analysis because of something you have read on this website.

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The Five Barbarians

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Introduction ℹ️

🗺️ Defining the "Wu Hu"

🏛️ Historical Context and Impact

⚠️ A Simplification of Reality

The Five Primary Peoples 👥

🐎 Xiongnu

🚶 Jie

🐂 Xianbei

🐑 Qiang

🌾 Di

Detailed Group Origins and Affiliations 🔍

📜 Xiongnu: A Fading Power

❓ Jie: Uncertain Roots

⛰️ Xianbei: Nomadic Dominance

🏞️ Di: Highland Dwellers

🌿 Qiang: Western Herdsmen

Beyond the Core Five ➕

💧 Lushuihu

🌳 Ba Cong (Ba-Di)

❄️ Dingling

👑 Goguryeo

💨 Wuhuan

Dynastic Shifts and the Sixteen Kingdoms ⏳

💥 The Upheaval of the Five Barbarians

🔄 Sinicization and Identity

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction

Defining the "Wu Hu"

Historical Context and Impact

A Simplification of Reality

The Five Primary Peoples

Xiongnu

Jie

Xianbei

Qiang

Di

Detailed Group Origins and Affiliations

Xiongnu: A Fading Power

Jie: Uncertain Roots

Xianbei: Nomadic Dominance

Di: Highland Dwellers

Qiang: Western Herdsmen

Beyond the Core Five

Lushuihu

Ba Cong (Ba-Di)

Dingling

Goguryeo

Wuhuan

Dynastic Shifts and the Sixteen Kingdoms

The Upheaval of the Five Barbarians

Sinicization and Identity

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice