What is General American (GA) English?

General American English, often simply called General American (GA), is the umbrella term for the accent of American English used by a majority of Americans. It encompasses a continuum of speech rather than a single, unified accent and is often perceived as lacking distinct regional, ethnic, or socioeconomic characteristics.

Which regions in the United States are most associated with the General American accent?

Speakers with high education levels, or those from the North Midland, Western New England, and Western regions of the United States are most likely to be perceived as using General American speech. These areas are considered to have fewer marked dialectical features.

What is an alternative term sometimes used for General American English?

Some scholars prefer the term Standard American English as an alternative to General American, although the term 'standard' itself can imply a hierarchy that some linguists find problematic.

How do Canadian English accents relate to the concept of General American?

Standard Canadian English accents are often considered to fall under the umbrella of General American, especially when contrasted with British English accents. Linguists like John C. Wells noted in 1982 that Canadian accents align closely with General American in most features where the two differ from British English.

What are the primary consonant phonemes present in General American English?

General American English includes consonant phonemes such as labial stops (p, b), nasals (m, n, ŋ), dental fricatives (θ, ð), alveolar stops (t, d), alveolar fricatives (s, z), alveolar lateral approximant (l), alveolar approximant (r), postalveolar affricates (tʃ, dʒ), postalveolar fricatives (ʃ, ʒ), palatal approximant (j), and glottal fricative (h).

How is the /r/ phoneme typically pronounced in General American English?

The /r/ phoneme in General American is generally pronounced as a postalveolar approximant [ɹ] or a retroflex approximant [ɻ]. Some speakers also use a 'bunched tongue' variant, and these sounds can exhibit varying degrees of labialization and pharyngealization.

What does 'rhoticity' mean in the context of American English accents?

Rhoticity, often called 'R-fulness,' is a characteristic of most American accents where the /r/ sound is pronounced in all historical positions where the letter 'r' appears in spelling. This includes positions after vowels, such as in words like 'car' or 'pearl'.

Why is rhoticity a common feature in American English accents?

Rhoticity is common in American English because most English dialects brought by early settlers from Britain were rhotic, and this feature was largely maintained in North America. Later immigration waves, particularly from Scotch-Irish speakers, also reinforced rhotic pronunciation.

Explain the phenomenon of 'yod dropping' in General American English.

Yod dropping is the deletion of the /j/ sound (the 'y' sound in 'yes') after certain consonants. In General American, this commonly occurs after alveolar consonants (/t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /l/) in stressed syllables, leading to pronunciations like /tun/ for 'tune' instead of /tjun/.

How is the /t/ sound typically realized in General American English, particularly in intervocalic positions?

In General American, the /t/ sound is often pronounced as a glottal stop [ʔ] when it occurs between vowels (intervocalically) or before a syllabic nasal like [n̩]. It can also be realized as a glottal constriction in absolute final positions after vowels or liquids.

What is 'flapping' in General American English, and which consonants are affected?

Flapping is a process where the consonants /t/ and /d/ become an alveolar flap [ɾ] when they occur between vowels or after an /r/, and before an unstressed vowel or a syllabic consonant. This causes words like 'ladder' and 'latter' to sound the same.

How does the pronunciation of 'L' in General American differ from typical British English?

In most General American accents, the distinction between a 'clear L' [l] and a 'dark L' [ɫ] is less pronounced. 'L' sounds tend to be more consistently 'dark' (velarized) across different positions, unlike in many British accents where the clear 'L' is more common in syllable onsets.

What is the 'wine-whine merger' in General American English?

The wine-whine merger means that word pairs like 'wine' and 'whine,' 'wet' and 'whet,' are pronounced identically by most speakers. This typically involves the loss of the voiceless labiovelar fricative /ʍ/ (or /hw/), which is usually pronounced as /w/.

What are the main categories of vowels found in General American English?

General American English features three main categories of vowels: monophthongs (pure vowels), diphthongs (vowels that glide from one position to another), and R-colored vowels (vowels followed by an /r/ sound).

Is vowel length considered phonemic in General American English?

No, vowel length is not phonemic in General American English. This means that the duration of a vowel does not change the meaning of a word, unlike in some other languages.

How do the tense vowels /i/ and /u/ vary in their pronunciation within General American English?

Tense vowels like /i/ and /u/ in General American can be realized as monophthongs (pure vowels) or diphthongs. For instance, /u/ can range from a pure back vowel [u] to a more central diphthongized sound like [ʊu].

How does General American English typically pronounce vowels in loanwords compared to their original languages?

General American speakers often assign tense vowels to stressed syllables in recent loanwords, regardless of the original pronunciation. For example, words like 'macho' or 'kebab' are typically pronounced with the tense /ɑ/ vowel in GA, even if the original language uses a lax vowel.

What is 'pre-nasal TRAP tensing' in General American English?

Pre-nasal TRAP tensing is a feature where the short 'a' sound /æ/ (as in TRAP) becomes tense and is raised, often with a centering glide, when it precedes a nasal consonant (/m/, /n/, or /ŋ/). This can result in pronunciations like [eə] or [ɪə] for words like 'man'.

What happens to the /æ/ vowel in General American English when it precedes 'L' in a syllable coda?

When the /æ/ vowel precedes a dark 'L' in a syllable coda, it is often realized as a centering diphthong, such as [ɛə] or [iə]. This affects words like 'pal' or 'gal'.

What is the 'father-bother merger' in General American English?

The father-bother merger is a common phenomenon in General American where the vowels in words like 'father' (/ɑ/) and 'bother' (/ɔ/) are pronounced identically, typically as an unrounded /ɑ/. This merger is widespread but not universal across all American accents.

What is the 'cot-caught merger,' and in which regions of North America is it most prevalent?

The cot-caught merger is when the vowels in words like 'cot' (/ɑ/) and 'caught' (/ɔ/) are pronounced the same, usually as /ɔ/. This merger is prevalent in the American West, Great Plains, northern New England, and western Pennsylvania.

How does the LOT-CLOTH split relate to the cot-caught merger in American English?

In accents that have *not* undergone the cot-caught merger, there is often a LOT-CLOTH split, where the vowel in 'cloth' (/ɔ/) is distinct from that in 'cot' (/ɑ/). This split typically causes the 'cloth' vowel to merge with the 'caught' (/ɔ/) vowel, especially before consonants like /s/.

How does the pronunciation of the STRUT vowel (/ʌ/) vary in General American English?

The STRUT vowel /ʌ/ varies in General American, often being pronounced as an advanced back vowel [ʌ̜] or a more centralized vowel [ə]. Midland, Southern, African-American, and younger speakers tend to use a more centralized pronunciation.

What is the 'weak vowel merger' in General American English?

The weak vowel merger is the tendency for the unstressed vowels /ɪ/ (as in KIT) and /ə/ (as in COMM A ) to become indistinguishable. This results in words like 'effect' sounding the same as 'affect'.

What is the 'Mary-marry-merry merger' in General American English?

The Mary-marry-merry merger means that the vowels in these three words are pronounced identically, typically as /ɛr/. While widespread in General American, this merger is still considered to be in transition, with some regional variations.

How does the pronunciation of the /j/ sound after alveolar consonants differ between General American and British English?

General American typically exhibits 'yod dropping,' deleting the /j/ sound after alveolar consonants in stressed syllables (e.g., 'tune' as /tun/). Many British accents retain the /j/, pronouncing 'tune' as /tjun/.

What is the typical pronunciation of the /u/ vowel in General American, and how does it compare to Received Pronunciation?

The /u/ vowel in General American can be realized as a pure back vowel [u] or a more central diphthongized variant [ʊu ~ ʉu]. Its phonetic value is generally less central than the /u/ found in modern Received Pronunciation.

What is 'Canadian raising,' and how does it manifest in General American English?

Canadian raising is a sound change where the diphthong /aɪ/ (as in PRICE) is raised before voiceless consonants, sounding more like [ʌɪ] or [aɪ]. This phenomenon, originating in Canada, is also observed in various American accents, creating a distinction between words like 'rider' and 'writer'.

What is the 'hurry-furry merger' in General American English?

The hurry-furry merger means that the vowels preceding /r/ in words like 'hurry' (/ʌr/) and 'furry' (/ɜr/) are pronounced the same, typically as [ɚ]. This merger is recognized in the majority of American English speakers.

What is the 'mirror-nearer merger' in General American English?

The mirror-nearer merger involves the vowels before /r/ in words like 'mirror' (/ɪr/) and 'nearer' (/ir/) becoming identical or very similar in most American accents. The precise quality of the vowel in 'mirror' can vary significantly among speakers.

How does the pronunciation of the /ɔr/ vowel (as in HORSE) compare between General American and Received Pronunciation?

In General American, the /ɔr/ vowel is typically pronounced as [ɔr] or [or], often merging with the /or/ vowel (as in HOARSE). Received Pronunciation usually features a longer /ɔːr/, maintaining a distinction between these sounds.

What is the historical origin of the term 'General American'?

The term 'General American' was first disseminated by American English scholar George Philip Krapp in 1925 and popularized by John Samuel Kenyon in the 1930s. They used it to describe a perceived 'non-local' or 'typical' American accent, often associated with the Midwest and Western regions.

What is the modern linguistic understanding of 'General American'?

Modern linguists generally view General American not as a single, unified accent, but as a continuum of American speech. It is characterized by the absence of highly marked regional, ethnic, or socioeconomic features, serving as a reference point for comparison.

What are some alternative terms proposed for 'General American'?

Alternative terms suggested include 'Standard American English,' 'Standard North American English,' 'General North American English,' and 'Mainstream American English.' These terms aim to capture nuances or broaden the scope to include Canadian speakers.

What factors contributed to the prevalence of General American accents?

Factors contributing to the prevalence of General American include suburbanization, the suppression of regional features by educated speakers in formal settings, the influence of prestigious accents from business elites, and a social preference for accents associated with White Anglo-Saxon Protestant communities.

How has the media influenced the perception and adoption of General American?

Nationwide media, particularly radio and television networks starting in the mid-20th century, adopted rhotic Northern U.S. pronunciations as a 'General American' standard. This broadcast standard, often called 'Broadcast English' or 'Network English,' promoted GA as prestigious and widely understandable.

What is the typical realization of the PALM vowel (/ɑː/) in General American English?

In General American English, the PALM vowel is typically realized as an unrounded back vowel [ɑː]. This pronunciation often merges with the LOT vowel (/ɑ/), contributing to the father-bother merger.

How does the pronunciation of the LOT vowel (/ɒ/) in General American English differ from Received Pronunciation?

In General American English, the LOT vowel is typically pronounced as an unrounded [ɑ], which often merges with the PALM vowel. In contrast, Received Pronunciation usually features a rounded back vowel [ɒ].

What is the 'father-bother merger,' and which regions typically maintain the distinction?

The father-bother merger means that the vowels in 'father' (/ɑ/) and 'bother' (/ɔ/) are pronounced identically, usually as /ɑ/. The distinction is typically maintained in older accents of New England (like Boston), Pittsburgh, and some New York accents.

How does the cot-caught merger affect vowel pronunciation in General American English?

The cot-caught merger causes the vowels in words like 'cot' (/ɑ/) and 'caught' (/ɔ/) to be pronounced the same, typically as /ɔ/. This merger is widespread, particularly in the American West and Midwest, but not universally present across all American accents.

What is the 'LOT-CLOTH split,' and how does it relate to the cot-caught merger?

The LOT-CLOTH split occurs in accents that have not undergone the cot-caught merger. In these accents, the vowel in 'cloth' (/ɔ/) is distinct from that in 'cot' (/ɑ/), and the 'cloth' vowel often merges with the 'caught' (/ɔ/) vowel, especially before consonants like /s/.

How does the pronunciation of the STRUT vowel (/ʌ/) vary in General American English?

The STRUT vowel /ʌ/ varies in General American, often being pronounced as an advanced back vowel [ʌ̜] or a more centralized vowel [ə]. Midland, Southern, African-American, and younger speakers tend to use a more centralized pronunciation.

What is the 'weak vowel merger' in General American English?

The weak vowel merger is the tendency for the unstressed vowels /ɪ/ (KIT) and /ə/ (COMM A ) to become indistinguishable. This results in pronunciations where words like 'effect' sound the same as 'affect'.

What is the 'Mary-marry-merry merger,' and is it complete in General American?

The Mary-marry-merry merger means that the vowels in these three words are pronounced identically, typically as /ɛr/. While widespread in General American, this merger is still considered to be in transition, with some regional variations.

How does the pronunciation of the /j/ sound after alveolar consonants differ between General American and British English?

General American typically exhibits 'yod dropping,' deleting the /j/ sound after alveolar consonants in stressed syllables (e.g., 'tune' as /tun/). Many British accents retain the /j/, pronouncing 'tune' as /tjun/.

What is the typical pronunciation of the /u/ vowel in General American, and how does it compare to RP?

The /u/ vowel in General American can be realized as a pure back vowel [u] or a more central diphthongized variant [ʊu ~ ʉu]. Its phonetic value is generally less central than the /u/ found in modern Received Pronunciation.

What is 'Canadian raising,' and how does it manifest in General American English?

Canadian raising is a sound change where the diphthong /aɪ/ (as in PRICE) is raised before voiceless consonants, sounding more like [ʌɪ] or [aɪ]. This phenomenon, originating in Canada, is also observed in various American accents, creating a distinction between words like 'rider' and 'writer'.

What is the 'hurry-furry merger' in General American English?

The hurry-furry merger means that the vowels preceding /r/ in words like 'hurry' (/ʌr/) and 'furry' (/ɜr/) are pronounced the same, typically as [ɚ]. This merger is recognized in the majority of American English speakers.

What is the 'mirror-nearer merger' in General American English?

The mirror-nearer merger involves the vowels before /r/ in words like 'mirror' (/ɪr/) and 'nearer' (/ir/) becoming identical or very similar in most American accents. The precise quality of the vowel in 'mirror' can vary significantly among speakers.

How does the pronunciation of the /ɔr/ vowel (as in HORSE) compare between General American and RP?

In General American, the /ɔr/ vowel is typically pronounced as [ɔr] or [or], often merging with the /or/ vowel (as in HOARSE). Received Pronunciation usually features a longer /ɔːr/, maintaining a distinction between these sounds.

What is the significance of the term 'General American' in media and broadcasting?

General American became the standard accent for nationwide radio and television networks starting in the mid-20th century, promoted as a prestigious, widely understandable, and relatively unregionalized accent, sometimes called 'Broadcast English' or 'Network English'.

General American English Wiki: The American Soundscape: Decoding General American English

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Understanding General American

Defining the Accent

General American (GA), often referred to simply as "General American," serves as an umbrella term for the accent of American English utilized by a significant majority of Americans. It represents a continuum of speech patterns rather than a single, monolithic accent. Linguistically, it is often perceived by American listeners as lacking distinct regional, ethnic, or socioeconomic markers, although individuals from the Midland, Western New England, and Western regions, particularly those with higher education, are most frequently associated with GA speech.^[1]^[2]^[3]

A Linguistic Benchmark

The precise definition and utility of "General American" remain subjects of scholarly debate. Contemporary linguists often employ the term as a convenient baseline for comparative analysis rather than a strictly defined entity.^[8]^[9]^[11] Some scholars advocate for alternative terminology, such as "Standard American English."^[12]^[4] Notably, Standard Canadian English accents are frequently categorized under the GA umbrella, particularly when contrasted with British Received Pronunciation.^[13]

Phonetic Transcription

This document utilizes the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) for precise phonetic transcriptions. Understanding the nuances of IPA symbols is crucial for accurate linguistic analysis. For a comprehensive guide to IPA symbols and their usage, please refer to the Help:IPA page (opens in new tab). The distinction between transcription delimiters like [ ], / /, and ⟨ ⟩ is essential for interpreting phonetic data accurately.^{[IPA Guide]}

Consonant Phonemes

General American Consonants

The following table outlines the consonant phonemes typically found in General American English:

Consonant phonemes in General American
	Labial		Dental		Alveolar		Post-alveolar			Velar		Glottal
Nasal		m				n					ŋ
Stop	p	b			t	d				k	ɡ
Affricate							tʃ	dʒ
Fricative	f	v	θ	ð	s	z	ʃ	ʒ				h
Approximant						l		r	j	(ʍ)	w

Vowel Phonemes

Monophthongs

General American features a distinct set of monophthongs (pure vowels). The following chart illustrates these sounds, noting distinctions in tenseness and tongue position:

Vowel phonemes in General American
	Front		Central		Back
	Lax	Tense	Lax	Tense	Lax	Tense
Close	ɪ	i			ʊ	u
Mid	ɛ	eɪ	ə		(ʌ)	oʊ
Open	æ			ɑ		(ɔ)
Diphthongs	ɑɪ ɔɪ ɑʊ

Phonetically, GA vowels exhibit length variation based on the following consonant's voicing and syllable structure. Unstressed vowels are generally shorter and may undergo reduction.^[32]^[33]^[34]

Vowel Characteristics

The tense vowels /i, u, eɪ, oʊ/ are often realized as diphthongs, particularly in stressed syllables. For example, stay is pronounced [steɪ] and row as [roʊ].^[35]^[36] The vowel /æ/ (as in TRAP) often undergoes tensing and raising before nasal consonants, resulting in a sound like [ɛə] or [eə], as heard in words like Anne [ɛən].^[40]

Rhoticity

Pronouncing the 'R'

General American is characterized by full rhoticity, meaning the /r/ sound is pronounced in all positions where it is spelled with 'r'. This contrasts with non-rhotic accents, common in England, where syllable-final 'r' is often omitted.^[18]^[19] The retention of rhoticity in North America dates back to the 17th century when most English dialects were rhotic. Subsequent immigration patterns, particularly from Scotch-Irish settlers, reinforced this feature.^[22]^[23] While non-rhotic accents exist in specific American regions (e.g., parts of New England, New York City), rhoticity has gained prestige and is widespread.

The pronunciation of /r/ itself can vary, often realized as a postalveolar approximant [ɹ] or a retroflex approximant [ɻ], sometimes with labialization or pharyngealization.^[15]^[16]^[17]

Yod-Dropping

The Disappearing 'Y' Sound

A notable feature of General American is extensive "yod-dropping," the deletion of the /j/ (the 'y' sound in 'yes') after alveolar and dental consonants. This contrasts with many British accents.

In GA, words like new, Tuesday, assume, duke are typically pronounced without the /j/, becoming /nu/, /ˈtʌzdeɪ/, /əˈsʊm/, and /dʊk/.^[24] This phenomenon applies even to syllables with secondary stress. However, /j/ is typically retained in unstressed syllables, as in menu /ˈmɛnju/.^[24]

T/D Flapping

The 'T' and 'D' Tap

In General American, the consonants /t/ and /d/ often become an alveolar flap [ɾ] when they occur between vowels or after /r/, and before an unstressed vowel. This process, known as flapping, leads to homophones like ladder/latter and coating/coding.^[26]

Examples include:

later pronounced [ˈleɪɾɚ]
partner pronounced [ˈpɑɹɾɚn]
cattle pronounced [ˈkæɾəl]

The rules governing flapping are complex, with contexts where it is prohibited (e.g., seduce [səˈdus]) or optional.^[26]

Audio Examples

Listen to the phonetic differences:

mountain (glottalized t)

[ˈmɑn.n̩]

partner (glottalized t)

[ˈpɑɹɾɚn]

leader (d-flapping)

[ˈliɾɚ]

cattle (t-flapping)

[ˈkæɾəl]

party (t-flapping)

[ˈpɑɹti]

Vowel Mergers

Merging Sounds

Several vowel mergers are characteristic of General American, simplifying the phonemic inventory for many speakers. These mergers are often regionally distributed or in transition.

Father-Bother Merger: The vowels in /ɑ/ (as in father) and /ɔ/ (as in bother) have merged for most Americans into a single phoneme, typically /ɑ/.^[58]^[59] This means words like cot and caught, or don and dawn, are often pronounced identically. Exceptions include parts of New England and older New York accents.^[58]
Cot-Caught Merger: This merger, where /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ merge, is widespread, particularly in the West and Plains states. Speakers who distinguish these vowels often use a more central [ɑ̈] for cot and a rounded [ɔ] or [ɒ] for caught.^[60]^[61] Surveys indicate a trend towards this merger among younger speakers.^[62]

Other Mergers

Additional mergers observed in General American include:

Mary-Marry-Merry Merger: For many Americans (around 57% according to a 2003 survey), the vowels before /r/ in Mary /ɛər/, marry /ær/, and merry /ɛr/ have merged into a single sound, typically /ɛər/.^[81]^[82]
Hurry-Furry Merger: The vowels in hurry /ʌ/ and furry /ɜ/ are merged for most speakers into /ɝ/ or /ɚ/.^[83]
Weak Vowel Merger: Unstressed vowels /ɪ/ (as in kit) and /ə/ (as in comma) often merge, resulting in pronunciations like effect sounding like affect.^[76]^[78]

Regional Variations

While these mergers are widespread, regional and generational differences persist. For instance, the /æ/ raising before nasals is more common in some areas than others.^[45] Similarly, the distinction between /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ is maintained by a significant minority of speakers.^[61]

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References

Wolchover, Natalie (2012). "Why Do Americans and Brits Have Different Accents?" LiveScience. Purch.

Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 173â174, 260â261.

Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 173â174, 238â239.

Duncan (2016), pp. 1â2; Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 175â177.

Wells 1982, pp. 136â37, 203â6, 234, 245â47, 339â40, 400, 419, 443, 576.

Labov, Ash & Boberg 2006, p. 114: "where Canadian raising has traditionally been reported: Canada, Eastern New England, Philadelphia, and the North".

Flemming, Edward; Johnson, Stephanie. (2007). "Rosa's roses: Reduced vowels in American English". Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37(1), 83â96.

Harbeck, James (August 2015). "Why is Canadian English unique?" BBC. BBC.

Boberg, Charles (2021). Accent in North American film and television. Cambridge University Press.

Labov, William (2012). Dialect diversity in America: The politics of language change. University of Virginia Press. pp. 1â2.

Hampton, Marian E. & Barbara Acker (eds.) (1997). The Vocal Vision: Views on Voice. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 163.

Ennser-Kananen, Halonen & Saarinen (2021), p. 334.

A full list of references for this article are available at the General American English Wikipedia page

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Linguistic Disclaimer

Important Considerations

This content has been generated by an AI model and is intended for educational and informational purposes regarding the phonetics and characteristics of General American English. The information is derived from publicly available data and may not capture all nuances or regional variations.

This is not professional linguistic advice. The descriptions and analyses presented here are based on established linguistic research but should not substitute consultation with qualified linguists or phoneticians for specific academic or professional needs. Always consult primary linguistic sources and expert analysis for definitive guidance.

The creators of this page are not liable for any inaccuracies, omissions, or actions taken based on the information provided.

The American Soundscape

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Understanding General American 🇺🇸

🗣️ Defining the Accent

🌍 A Linguistic Benchmark

🎧 Phonetic Transcription

Consonant Phonemes consonants

⚙️ General American Consonants

Vowel Phonemes vowels

🎶 Monophthongs

🔊 Vowel Characteristics

Rhoticity rhoticity

R Pronouncing the 'R'

Yod-Dropping yod

↘️ The Disappearing 'Y' Sound

T/D Flapping flapping

ɾ The 'T' and 'D' Tap

🎙️ Audio Examples

Vowel Mergers mergers

↔️ Merging Sounds

➡️ Other Mergers

🗣️ Regional Variations

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📜 Important Considerations

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Understanding General American

Defining the Accent

A Linguistic Benchmark

Phonetic Transcription

Consonant Phonemes

General American Consonants

Vowel Phonemes

Monophthongs

Vowel Characteristics

Rhoticity

Pronouncing the 'R'

Yod-Dropping

The Disappearing 'Y' Sound

T/D Flapping

The 'T' and 'D' Tap

Audio Examples

Vowel Mergers

Merging Sounds

Other Mergers

Regional Variations

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Linguistic Disclaimer

Important Considerations