What is the Great Barrier Reef?

The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system, composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands. It stretches for more than 2,300 kilometers (1,400 miles) off the coast of Queensland, Australia, covering an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometers (133,000 sq mi). It is the largest single structure made by living organisms and is visible from outer space.

When was the Great Barrier Reef designated a World Heritage Site, and what criteria did it meet?

The Great Barrier Reef was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1981. It met the natural criteria vii (containing superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance), viii (being outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the record of life, significant ongoing geological processes, or geomorphic features), ix (being outstanding examples representing significant ongoing ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals), and x (containing the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation).

What are some of the major environmental threats impacting the Great Barrier Reef?

The Great Barrier Reef faces several significant environmental threats, including climate change leading to ocean warming and coral bleaching, pollution from agricultural runoff containing pollutants, and outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish. Other threats include dumping of dredging sludge and the impacts of shipping accidents and cyclones.

According to studies, how much coral cover has the Great Barrier Reef lost since the mid-1980s?

A study published in October 2012 indicated that the Great Barrier Reef had lost more than half of its coral cover since 1985. This finding was reaffirmed by a 2020 study which reported over half of the reef's coral cover was lost between 1995 and 2017, with the full impact of a 2020 bleaching event yet to be quantified.

What is the historical significance of the Great Barrier Reef to Indigenous Australians?

The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and utilized by Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples. It holds significant cultural and spiritual importance for these local groups, reflecting a deep historical connection to the area.

Who was the first European to sight the Great Barrier Reef, and what happened during his visit?

The first European to sight the Great Barrier Reef was James Cook in 1770. During his exploration, his ship, HMS Endeavour, ran aground on a shoal south of present-day Cooktown, necessitating a seven-week repair period.

Who named the Great Barrier Reef, and when did this occur?

Matthew Flinders is credited with naming the Great Barrier Reef. He did so after conducting more detailed mapping of the reef system in 1802, using terms like "great reef" and "barrier reef" to describe the structures he encountered.

How does the plate tectonic theory relate to the Great Barrier Reef's geological history?

The plate tectonic theory suggests that Australia has been moving northward at a rate of 7 cm per year since the Cenozoic era. This movement brought eastern Australia into tropical waters, influencing the reef's development, which began growing in the Coral Sea Basin after its formation. Eastern Australia also experienced tectonic uplift during this period, which shifted the drainage divide inland and led to volcanic activity.

What are the typical vertical growth rates of coral reefs, and what depth limitations do they have?

Coral reefs can grow vertically at a rate of 1 to 25 cm per year. However, this growth is limited to depths above 150 meters (490 ft) because corals require sunlight for photosynthesis, and they cannot grow above sea level.

What geological factors influenced the development of the Great Barrier Reef over millions of years?

The Great Barrier Reef's development was influenced by several geological factors, including Australia's northward drift into tropical waters, periods of significant sea-level change, and sedimentation from the erosion of the Great Dividing Range. Volcanic eruptions also formed islands in the region. The current living reef structure is estimated to have begun growing on older platforms about 9,000 years ago.

What types of reefs are found in the northern part of the Great Barrier Reef that are not present elsewhere in the system?

In the northern section of the Great Barrier Reef, ribbon reefs and deltaic reefs have formed. These specific reef structures are not found in other parts of the Great Barrier Reef system.

What is the ecological significance of seagrass beds within the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem?

Seagrass beds, particularly those of the genera Halophila and Halodule, are important within the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem because they attract dugongs and sea turtles, providing them with food. These seagrass beds also serve as crucial habitats for various fish species.

How does ocean acidification threaten coral reefs like the Great Barrier Reef?

Ocean acidification, caused by the absorption of excess atmospheric carbon dioxide into seawater, reduces the availability of aragonite, a vital mineral for coral skeleton formation. This process lowers the ocean's pH, making it harder for corals and other shell-building organisms to grow and maintain their structures.

What are the primary sources of pollution affecting the Great Barrier Reef's water quality?

The primary source of pollution affecting the Great Barrier Reef's water quality is agricultural runoff, which accounts for over 90% of the pollution entering the reef, particularly during tropical flood events. This runoff carries sediments, nutrients, fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides from farming activities, primarily sugar cane cultivation and cattle grazing.

How does eutrophication impact the Great Barrier Reef's ecosystem?

Eutrophication occurs when excess nutrients from fertilizer runoff cause massive algal growth in the ocean. This algal bloom consumes available oxygen, creating a hypoxic environment that harms other marine life and reduces biodiversity. It also increases the survival rate of crown-of-thorns starfish larvae, contributing to their population outbreaks.

What role do coastal wetlands play in protecting the Great Barrier Reef from pollution?

Coastal wetlands act as natural filters, helping to remove toxins and trap sediments before they reach the reef. The loss of these wetlands exacerbates the pollution problem, as more agricultural runoff and associated contaminants enter the marine environment.

What is the impact of pesticides used in agriculture on the Great Barrier Reef?

Pesticides used in farming, often containing heavy metals like lead, mercury, and arsenic, are released into the environment through soil erosion. These toxins have a detrimental effect on the coral and the overall biodiversity of the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem.

How do crown-of-thorns starfish pose a threat to the Great Barrier Reef?

Crown-of-thorns starfish are predators that feed on coral polyps. Large outbreaks of these starfish can devastate reefs, leading to significant loss of live coral cover. These outbreaks are believed to be exacerbated by factors like poor water quality and the overfishing of the starfish's natural predators.

What are the impacts of overfishing on the Great Barrier Reef's food chains and habitat?

Overfishing of key species, such as the giant Triton, disrupts vital food chains within the reef ecosystem. Fishing activities also contribute to water pollution from boats, result in the by-catch of non-target species like dolphins and turtles, and can cause habitat destruction through methods like trawling and anchoring.

What is the significance of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park's zoning plan implemented in 2004?

The zoning plan for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, implemented in July 2004, significantly increased the area of highly protected zones from 4.5% to over 33.3%. This plan was widely acclaimed as a global benchmark for marine ecosystem conservation and was developed using systematic conservation planning techniques.

What was the controversy surrounding the Abbot Point coal port dredge dumping?

In December 2013, the Australian environment minister approved a plan to dredge 3 million cubic meters of seabed near Abbot Point for a coal port expansion. This dredged material was initially approved to be dumped within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, raising concerns about potential harm to marine life and habitats due to sediment clouding, smothering, and the release of toxic substances.

What was the outcome of the Abbot Point dredge dumping controversy?

Following international pressure and concerns raised by the World Heritage Committee, the Australian Federal Government announced a ban on dumping dredge spoil within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Both the Queensland and Commonwealth governments accepted the alternative of dumping the material on land instead.

How does tourism contribute to the economy of the Great Barrier Reef region?

Tourism is a major economic activity for the Great Barrier Reef region. By 2013, it was estimated to attract tourism worth A$6.4 billion annually and support over 64,000 jobs. Approximately two million people visit the reef each year, contributing significantly to the local economy.

What are the most popular tourist activities undertaken at the Great Barrier Reef?

The most popular tourist activities at the Great Barrier Reef are snorkeling and scuba diving, often facilitated by pontoons. Helicopter flights, glass-bottom boat tours, and visits to island resorts are also common ways for tourists to experience the reef.

How is tourism managed to ensure ecological sustainability in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park?

Tourism management in the Great Barrier Reef aims for ecological sustainability through various policies. These include levying a daily fee that funds reef research, limiting traffic from cruise ships and bareboat charters, and implementing regulations for anchorages to prevent reef damage. Tourism operators must also adhere to speed limits to minimize disturbance to the ecosystem.

What impact can permanent tourism platforms have on coral health?

Permanent tourism platforms can negatively impact coral health. Seabird droppings on these platforms can wash into the sea, carrying nutrients and contaminants like nitrogen, phosphorus, DDT, and mercury, which are linked to coral diseases such as aspergillosis, yellow-band disease, and black band disease. Areas with tourism platforms show a significantly higher percentage of diseased corals compared to areas without them.

What is the annual economic value of the fishing industry in the Great Barrier Reef region?

The fishing industry in the Great Barrier Reef, regulated by the Queensland Government, is valued at approximately A$1 billion annually. It provides employment for about 2,000 people and supports commercial, recreational, and subsistence fishing practices.

What rights do traditional owners have regarding hunting dugongs and green turtles under the Native Title Act 1993?

Under the Native Title Act 1993, traditional owners retain the legal right to hunt dugongs and green turtles. This right is specifically for personal, domestic, or non-commercial communal needs, acknowledging their cultural connection to these species.

Why did four traditional owner groups agree to cease hunting dugongs in 2011?

In 2011, four traditional owner groups voluntarily agreed to stop hunting dugongs due to a decline in the species' population. This decline was partly attributed to damage to seagrass habitats caused by Cyclone Yasi.

What measures does the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority employ for conservation and management?

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority employs a combination of strategies for conservation and management. These include zoning the park, implementing management plans, issuing permits, conducting educational programs, and offering incentives like eco-tourism certification to ensure the reef's sustainable use.

How does the Australian government's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 aim to protect the reef?

The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 improved national environmental law by establishing guidance for regional biodiversity conservation priorities. This led to the marine bioregional planning process, which focuses on conserving marine biodiversity by considering the entire ecosystem and species interactions.

What were the goals of the Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan launched in 2003?

The Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan, launched in 2003, aimed to halt and reverse the decline in water quality entering the Great Barrier Reef by 2013. Its broader goal was to improve water quality by 2020 to a level that would not detrimentally impact the reef's health. The plan focused on reducing pollutants like nutrients, pesticides, and sediment from agricultural activities.

What key achievements were made under the Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan since its inception?

Key achievements under the plan include establishing the Reef Quality Partnership for target setting and monitoring, rewarding landowners for improved land conditions, creating Water Quality Improvement Plans for regional targets, establishing Nutrient Management Zones, implementing farm management systems, and supporting the Queensland Wetland Program.

What is the significance of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park's zoning plan from 2004 in terms of protection?

The 2004 zoning plan for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park significantly enhanced protection by increasing the highly protected zones from 4.5% to over 33.3% of the park. This expansion was based on systematic conservation planning techniques and aimed to create a more effective system for marine ecosystem conservation.

What are the main types of corals found in the Great Barrier Reef?

The Great Barrier Reef hosts approximately 400 species of corals, encompassing both hard corals and soft corals. These corals form the foundation of the reef ecosystem.

How do corals reproduce, and what triggers their mass spawning events?

Corals reproduce primarily by releasing gametes into the water column during mass spawning events. These events are typically triggered by rising sea temperatures in spring and summer, synchronized with the lunar cycle and diurnal cycles. Inner reefs spawn in October, while outer reefs spawn in November and December.

What is the role of the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) in monitoring the Great Barrier Reef?

The Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) conducts annual surveys to assess the condition of the Great Barrier Reef. Their reports provide crucial data on coral cover, recovery rates, and the health of the ecosystem, contributing to management and conservation efforts.

What were the findings of the 2022 AIMS report regarding coral recovery?

The 2022 AIMS report indicated the greatest coral recovery observed in 36 years, primarily due to the regrowth of Acropora coral, a fast-growing species dominant in the area. However, the report also noted that while northern and central parts showed high coral cover, the southern part experienced decreased cover and more frequent bleaching events.

What specific concerns did UNESCO express regarding the Great Barrier Reef in July 2017?

In July 2017, UNESCO published a draft decision expressing serious concern about the impact of coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef. The organization also warned Australia that targets outlined in the Reef 2050 report would not be met without substantial improvements in water quality.

How does climate change affect fish populations and seabird chick mortality in the Great Barrier Reef region?

Climate change impacts fish populations by altering their preferred temperature ranges, causing them to seek new habitats. This migration can indirectly affect predatory seabirds by reducing the availability of their prey, leading to increased chick mortality.

What is the significance of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act of 1975?

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act of 1975 established the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and prohibited various activities within it. It also mandated the publication of an Outlook Report every five years to assess the reef's health, pressures, and management effectiveness.

What is the primary purpose of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)?

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) is responsible for managing the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in partnership with the Government of Queensland. Its primary goal is to ensure the reef is used sustainably, protecting its natural values for future generations.

What are the main types of reefs found in the Great Barrier Reef system?

The Great Barrier Reef system includes various reef types such as fringing reefs, often found attached to islands like the Whitsunday Islands; lagoonal reefs, present in the southern parts and off Princess Charlotte Bay; crescentic reefs, common in the middle of the system and around Lizard Island; and planar reefs, found in the northern and southern areas near Cape York Peninsula and Cairns, often supporting islands.

What is the estimated age of the current, living reef structure of the Great Barrier Reef?

Estimates for the age of the current, living reef structure vary slightly, with the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority suggesting it began growing on older platforms about 9,000 years ago. The CRC Reef Research Centre estimates the age to be between 6,000 and 8,000 years old.

What are 'wonky holes' and how do they affect the reef?

'Wonky holes' are geological features that can impact the reef by causing upwellings of freshwater, sometimes rich in nutrients. This can contribute to eutrophication, altering the local marine environment.

How many species of fish are estimated to inhabit the Great Barrier Reef?

Over 1,500 species of fish are estimated to live on the Great Barrier Reef. This diverse fish population includes well-known species like clownfish and red bass, as well as various snappers and coral trout.

How many species of sea turtles are known to visit the Great Barrier Reef for breeding?

Six species of sea turtles visit the Great Barrier Reef to breed. These include the green sea turtle, leatherback sea turtle, hawksbill turtle, loggerhead sea turtle, flatback turtle, and the olive ridley turtle.

What is the significance of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority's 2001 report on water quality?

The GBRMPA's 2001 report highlighted the declining water quality in the Great Barrier Reef and the importance of addressing this issue. In response, the Australian and Queensland governments launched a joint initiative in 2003 to improve the quality of water entering the reef.

What specific targets were set by the Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan for reducing pollutants?

The plan set targets such as a 50% reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus loads at the end of catchments by 2013, and a 20% reduction in sediment load by 2020. It also outlined steps for landholders to improve grazing, soil, nutrient, and chemical management practices.

What is the estimated economic value of the fishing industry in the Great Barrier Reef region?

The fishing industry in the Great Barrier Reef region is valued at approximately A$1 billion annually. It supports around 2,000 jobs and encompasses commercial, recreational, and traditional fishing practices.

What is the role of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in protecting the ecosystem?

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, established in 1975, protects a significant portion of the reef system. It is managed through zoning, management plans, permits, and educational initiatives to ensure sustainable use and conservation of the marine environment.

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Overview

Vast Marine Ecosystem

The Great Barrier Reef stands as the planet's most extensive coral reef system, a complex structure comprising over 2,900 individual reefs and approximately 900 islands. Stretching more than 2,300 kilometers (1,400 miles) across an area of roughly 344,400 square kilometers (133,000 sq mi), it is a testament to the cumulative efforts of billions of tiny coral polyps.

Global Significance

Recognized for its unparalleled natural beauty and ecological importance, the Great Barrier Reef was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981. It has been celebrated as one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World and is considered a state icon of Queensland, Australia, underscoring its profound global and regional value.

Location and Composition

Situated in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia, the reef is separated from the mainland by a channel that varies in width. This immense structure is built by countless coral polyps, organisms that secrete calcium carbonate to form the intricate skeletal framework that supports a staggering diversity of marine life.

Geology

Formation History

The geological history of the Great Barrier Reef is intrinsically linked to continental drift and significant sea-level fluctuations over millions of years. As Australia migrated northward into tropical waters, tectonic uplift and volcanic activity shaped the region, creating the foundational platforms upon which coral growth could eventually flourish.

Substrate and Growth

The current living reef structure is estimated to have begun growing approximately 6,000 to 8,000 years ago upon older Pleistocene reef platforms. This growth is highly dependent on sea level, with corals requiring sunlight and specific depth ranges, making their development a dynamic process influenced by geological time scales.

Reef Typologies

The Great Barrier Reef exhibits a diverse array of reef formations. These include ribbon reefs and deltaic reefs in the north, fringing reefs common around islands, lagoonal reefs in the southern sections, crescentic reefs forming characteristic shapes, and planar reefs, many of which support the reef's numerous islands.

Ecology

Biodiversity Hotspot

The Great Barrier Reef is a globally significant repository of marine biodiversity, hosting an extraordinary array of life. It provides critical habitats for numerous species, including many classified as vulnerable or endangered, and supports a remarkable level of endemism, meaning many species are found nowhere else on Earth.

Marine Life Diversity

The ecosystem teems with life, including thirty species of cetaceans, large populations of dugongs, and over 1,500 species of fish. It is also a vital breeding ground for six species of sea turtles and supports diverse populations of sea snakes, sharks, rays, molluscs, pipefish, and seahorses, showcasing the reef's ecological richness.

Avian and Floral Assemblages

The islands and waters of the reef support a significant avian population, with over 215 species of birds, including seabirds and shorebirds, utilizing the area for nesting and roosting. The islands themselves host approximately 2,195 plant species, contributing to the complex ecological tapestry of this unique environment.

Environmental Threats

Climate Change Impacts

Climate change poses the most significant threat, primarily through ocean warming, which induces widespread coral bleaching events. These events, occurring with increasing frequency and severity, have led to substantial coral loss and increased susceptibility to disease, fundamentally altering reef communities.

Ocean Acidification and Pollution

The absorption of excess atmospheric carbon dioxide leads to ocean acidification, reducing the availability of essential minerals like aragonite, critical for coral skeletal growth. Concurrently, pollution from agricultural runoff, carrying sediments, nutrients, and chemicals, degrades water quality, exacerbates algal blooms, and diminishes the reef's resilience.

Other Pressures

Beyond climate change and pollution, the reef faces threats from outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish, exacerbated by nutrient runoff. Overfishing, shipping accidents, and unsustainable practices like shark culling also contribute to the degradation of this vital ecosystem.

Protection & Preservation

Management Framework

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, in partnership with the Queensland Government, manages the reef through a comprehensive framework. This includes zoning plans, specific management strategies, permit systems, and educational initiatives designed to ensure sustainable use and conservation of the marine ecosystem.

The Reef 2050 Plan

Launched in 2015, the Reef 2050 Plan is a long-term strategy aimed at protecting the reef's heritage values until 2050. It outlines measures to address pollution, climate change impacts, and other threats through improved water quality, reef restoration, and sustainable practices, though its effectiveness is debated in the face of escalating climate impacts.

Conservation Initiatives

Conservation efforts involve marine bioregional planning to identify and protect biodiversity hotspots, establishing marine protected areas, and implementing water quality improvement plans. These initiatives aim to enhance the reef's resilience against environmental stressors and ensure its long-term survival.

Tourism

Economic Significance

Tourism is a cornerstone of the regional economy, generating billions of Australian dollars annually and providing substantial employment. The reef's immense biodiversity and accessibility make it a premier global destination for ecotourism, particularly for activities like scuba diving and snorkeling.

Activities and Infrastructure

Visitors engage in a wide array of activities, including diving, snorkeling, glass-bottom boat tours, and helicopter flights. The region supports numerous resorts on its islands and utilizes infrastructure like permanent tourism platforms to facilitate visitor experiences, while also managing potential environmental impacts.

Sustainable Management

Management strategies for tourism focus on ecological sustainability. This includes levying fees for reef research, implementing policies for cruise ships and anchorages, and establishing permanent anchorage points to minimize physical damage. Efforts are ongoing to balance economic benefits with the imperative of conservation.

Fishing

Industry and Value

The fishing industry in the Great Barrier Reef region is a significant economic contributor, valued at approximately A$1 billion annually. It supports thousands of jobs and caters to commercial, recreational, and traditional subsistence needs, reflecting the multifaceted role of fishing in the region.

Impacts and Regulations

Fishing practices can impact the reef through overfishing of key species, by-catch, and habitat damage. Management strategies include zoning to protect sensitive areas, regulating fishing activities, and respecting the traditional rights of Indigenous peoples to hunt certain species for personal and communal needs.

Traditional Use and Conservation

Recognizing the cultural and spiritual significance of marine resources, traditional owners play a role in conservation. Some groups have voluntarily ceased hunting dugongs due to population declines, demonstrating a commitment to the long-term health of the ecosystem and its inhabitants.

References

Source Citations

The information presented on this page is derived from the provided source material. Detailed citations are managed programmatically.

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References

"Great Barrier Reef sees record coral cover, but it is highly vulnerable", BBC, 4 August 2022.

Fernandes et al. (2005) Establishing representative no-take areas in the Great Barrier Reef: large-scale implementation of theory on marine protected areas, Conservation Biology, 19(6), 1733â1744.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Great Barrier Reef Wikipedia page

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Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date. The Great Barrier Reef is a complex and dynamic ecosystem, and its status is subject to ongoing scientific research and environmental changes.

This is not professional scientific or environmental advice. The information provided on this website should not be considered a substitute for expert consultation or official guidance from marine conservation authorities. Always refer to the latest scientific reports and consult with qualified professionals for specific environmental or conservation matters.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein. The dynamic nature of the reef's health means that conditions can change rapidly.

The Great Barrier Reef: A Living Jewel Under Pressure

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Overview ℹ️

🌊 Vast Marine Ecosystem

⭐ Global Significance

📍 Location and Composition

Geology ⛰️

⏳ Formation History

🏗️ Substrate and Growth

📐 Reef Typologies

Ecology 🐠

🌿 Biodiversity Hotspot

🐳 Marine Life Diversity

🐦 Avian and Floral Assemblages

Environmental Threats ⚠️

🌡️ Climate Change Impacts

🧪 Ocean Acidification and Pollution

⭐ Other Pressures

Protection & Preservation 🛡️

📜 Management Framework

📅 The Reef 2050 Plan

🌳 Conservation Initiatives

Tourism 🛥️

💰 Economic Significance

🤿 Activities and Infrastructure

⚖️ Sustainable Management

Fishing 🎣

📊 Industry and Value

🎣 Impacts and Regulations

🐢 Traditional Use and Conservation

References 📚

🔗 Source Citations

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

Vast Marine Ecosystem

Global Significance

Location and Composition

Geology

Formation History

Substrate and Growth

Reef Typologies

Ecology

Biodiversity Hotspot

Marine Life Diversity

Avian and Floral Assemblages

Environmental Threats

Climate Change Impacts

Ocean Acidification and Pollution

Other Pressures

Protection & Preservation

Management Framework

The Reef 2050 Plan

Conservation Initiatives

Tourism

Economic Significance

Activities and Infrastructure

Sustainable Management

Fishing

Industry and Value

Impacts and Regulations

Traditional Use and Conservation

References

Source Citations

Test Your Knowledge

Interactive Quiz

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice