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The Celestial Tapestry

A scholarly journey through the multifaceted interpretations of Heaven, from ancient cosmologies to modern theological perspectives.

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The Essence of Heaven

A Divine Location

Across diverse religious and philosophical traditions, Heaven, or "the Heavens," consistently emerges as a profound cosmological or supernatural realm. It is conceptualized as the origin, throne, or dwelling place for various celestial and spiritual entities, including deities, angels, the souls of the departed, saints, and revered ancestors. This elevated status often positions Heaven as a "highest place" or a "paradise," fundamentally contrasting with notions of Hell or the Underworld, which are typically depicted as "low places."

Access and Aspiration

The criteria for accessing this divine realm vary significantly among belief systems. Entry may be universally granted or conditionally dependent upon an individual's adherence to specific standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith, or other virtues and "right beliefs." In some traditions, access is simply a matter of divine will. Furthermore, while heavenly beings are often believed to descend to Earth or incarnate, earthly beings may ascend to Heaven in the afterlife, or, in rare instances, even enter without experiencing death. Some eschatological visions also posit the possibility of a "heaven on Earth" in a future "world to come."

Cycles and Liberation

In Indian religions, Heaven is often referred to as *Svargaloka*, a temporary abode where souls reside based on their accumulated *karma*. However, this stay is not eternal; souls are subject to the cycle of *reincarnation* into different life forms. The ultimate liberation from this cycle is achieved through *Moksha* or *Nirvana*, which represents a transcendental state beyond the ephemeral heavens. Any realm of existence for humans, souls, or deities outside the tangible world—be it Heaven, Hell, or other dimensions—is broadly termed the *otherworld*.

Reward and Eternity

For Abrahamic faiths such as Christianity, Islam, and certain schools of Judaism, alongside Zoroastrianism, Heaven is understood as a realm of the afterlife where virtuous actions performed in the earthly life are eternally rewarded. This stands in direct opposition to Hell, which is typically conceived as a place of punishment for transgressions. These traditions emphasize a definitive, often eternal, destiny shaped by moral conduct and spiritual adherence.

Etymological Origins

Linguistic Evolution

The contemporary English term "heaven" traces its lineage through a rich linguistic history. It is derived from the Middle English "heven" (attested around 1159 CE), which itself evolved from the Old English form "heofon." While by approximately 1000 CE, "heofon" had come to denote the Christianized "place where God dwells," its original meaning was more terrestrial, signifying "sky" or "firmament," as evidenced in ancient texts like *Beowulf* (c. 725 CE).

Germanic Roots

The English term "heaven" shares cognates across various Germanic languages, indicating a common ancestral origin. Examples include Old Saxon *heḃan* ("sky, heaven"), Old Icelandic *himinn*, and Gothic *himins*. Other Germanic languages exhibit a variant with a final "-l," such as Old Frisian *himel, himul* ("sky, heaven"), Old High German *himil*, Dutch *hemel*, and modern German *Himmel*. All these forms are reconstructed from a Proto-Germanic root, *hemina-*, or *hemō*.

Proto-Indo-European Connections

The deeper etymological derivation of this Proto-Germanic form remains a subject of scholarly debate. One hypothesis suggests a connection to the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root *k̑em- ("cover, shroud"), possibly via a reconstructed *k̑emen- or *k̑ōmen- ("stone, heaven"). An alternative theory proposes a derivation from the PIE root *h₂éh₃mō ("stone" and, potentially, "heavenly vault"). This latter connection would link "heaven" to cognates such as Ancient Greek *ákmōn* ("anvil, pestle; meteorite"), Persian *âsemân, âsmân* ("stone, sling-stone; sky, heaven"), and Sanskrit *aśman* ("stone, rock, sling-stone; thunderbolt; the firmament"). Intriguingly, under this interpretation, the English word "hammer" would also be a cognate.

Ancient Near Eastern Views

Mesopotamian Cosmology

Ancient Mesopotamians conceived of the sky as a series of concentric domes, typically three or seven, arching over a flat Earth. Each dome was believed to be crafted from a distinct precious stone. The lowest dome, made of jasper, housed the stars. The middle dome, composed of *saggilmut* stone, was the dwelling of the Igigi, a class of celestial deities. The highest and outermost dome, fashioned from *luludānītu* stone, was personified as Anu, the supreme god of the sky. Celestial bodies were also deified; Venus was Inanna (goddess of sex and war), the Sun was her brother Utu (god of justice), and the Moon was their father Nanna.

In Mesopotamian cultures, human access to the divine realm was severely limited. Heaven and Earth were inherently separate. While humans could observe and be affected by phenomena in the lower heavens, such as stars and storms, ordinary mortals could not ascend to Heaven, as it was exclusively the domain of the gods. The *Epic of Gilgamesh* famously states, "Who can go up to heaven, my friend? Only the gods dwell with Shamash forever." After death, souls descended to Kur (later Irkalla), a dark underworld beneath the Earth, where a person's earthly actions had no bearing on their treatment. Despite this separation, humans sought divine interaction through oracles and omens, and temples, like the Ekur in Nippur (known as the "Dur-an-ki" or "mooring rope" of heaven and earth), were considered vital channels of communication between the terrestrial and celestial realms.

Hurrian and Hittite Deities

The ancient Hittites held a belief system where certain deities resided in Heaven, while others inhabited remote earthly locations, such as mountains, largely inaccessible to humans. In Middle Hittite myths, Heaven is explicitly the abode of the gods. The *Song of Kumarbi* narrates a celestial succession: Alalu reigned as king in Heaven for nine years before fathering Anu, who in turn was overthrown by his own son, Kumarbi, illustrating a dynamic and often tumultuous divine hierarchy within the heavenly sphere.

Canaanite Perspectives

Information regarding Bronze Age (pre-1200 BCE) Canaanite conceptions of heaven is scarce, with archaeological discoveries at Ugarit (destroyed c. 1200 BCE) yielding little insight. However, elements of Iron Age Phoenician religion may have been preserved by the first-century Greek author Philo of Byblos in his work, *Sanchuniathon*, offering a potential, albeit indirect, glimpse into their understanding of the celestial realm.

Zoroastrian Influence

Zoroaster, the prophet of Zoroastrianism, introduced the concepts of Heaven and Hell through his *Gathas*. Historically, the distinctive features of Zoroastrianism, including its developed ideas of heaven, hell, angels, monotheism, free will, and a day of judgment, are believed to have significantly influenced other major religious and philosophical systems. These include the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), Gnosticism, Northern Buddhism, and various schools of Greek philosophy, highlighting Zoroastrianism's profound impact on global eschatological thought.

Abrahamic Traditions

Hebrew Bible

In the Hebrew Bible, the cosmos is typically divided into two primary realms: heaven (*šāmayim*) and earth (*'ereṣ*). Occasionally, a third realm is mentioned, such as "sea," "water under the earth," or a vaguely described "land of the dead." The plural form of *šāmayim* suggests that ancient Israelites, much like Mesopotamians, envisioned multiple layers within the heavens, a notion supported by phrases like "heaven of heavens."

Consistent with other ancient Near Eastern cultures, the Hebrew Bible generally portrays Heaven as inaccessible to humans. While prophets like those in 1 Kings 22:19–23, Job 1:6–12, and Isaiah 6 are granted temporary visionary access, they primarily witness divine deliberations concerning Earth, gaining little insight into the nature of Heaven itself. The Hebrew Bible rarely mentions Heaven as an afterlife destination for humans, who are typically described as "resting" in Sheol. Notable exceptions include Enoch, "taken" by God (Genesis 5:24), and Elijah, who ascended in a chariot of fire (2 Kings 2:11), though the significance of their post-ascension state remains ambiguous.

The God of Israel is depicted as sovereign over both Heaven and Earth, yet passages like 1 Kings 8:27 emphasize that even the vastness of Heaven cannot fully contain His majesty. The Hebrew Bible also indicates that Heaven and Earth are not eternal but will eventually come to an end, a view shared by other ancient Near Eastern cultures. However, it uniquely portrays the God of Israel as independent of creation and unaffected by its potential dissolution. Given the narrative focus on God's relationship with His people, most events unfold on Earth, with the Temple in Jerusalem serving as the primary conduit for communication between the terrestrial and celestial realms.

Second Temple Judaism

During the Second Temple period (c. 515 BCE – 70 CE), Jewish thought on the afterlife was significantly shaped by the dominant Persian, Greek, and Roman cultures. Concepts such as the immortality of the soul, derived from Greek philosophy, and the resurrection of the dead, potentially influenced by Persian cosmology, became integrated into Hebrew eschatology. By the early first century CE, these ideas, though seemingly disparate, were often conflated by Jewish thinkers.

The Hellenistic period (323–31 BCE) saw increasing popularity for the notion that the human soul originates in the divine realm and seeks to return there, viewing Earth as a temporary testing ground. Consequently, some Hebrews began to embrace Heaven as the eternal dwelling for the righteous departed, marking a significant shift from earlier biblical interpretations of Sheol.

Christianity

New Testament descriptions of Heaven are more developed yet still retain a degree of vagueness compared to Old Testament accounts. God is portrayed as the ultimate ruler of Heaven and Earth, though His dominion over Earth is depicted as being challenged by Satan. The Gospels of Mark and Luke refer to the "Kingdom of God," while Matthew more frequently uses "Kingdom of Heaven," both terms generally understood to convey the same meaning, with Matthew's usage reflecting a cultural preference in the late first century.

Modern scholarship affirms the "Kingdom of God" as central to the historical Jesus' teachings, though its precise nature remains debated. It is widely accepted that this concept was commonly understood and thus required no explicit definition. Many Jews in the early first century believed God eternally reigned in Heaven and would eventually establish His kingdom on Earth, implying the overthrow of Roman rule. This expectation is echoed in the Lord's Prayer: "Your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven." Other scholars suggest Jesus' teaching encompassed both a present and future Kingdom. His death and resurrection are seen as the climax of inaugurating this Kingdom, fulfilling prophecies and initiating a "new creation."

Jesus taught that preparation for the Kingdom of God involved living moral lives, as detailed in the Sermon on the Mount. He also emphasized a "reversal of roles" in Heaven, where "the last will be first and the first will be last," a theme recurring in parables such as the Rich Man and Lazarus, the Workers in the Vineyard, the Great Banquet, and the Prodigal Son.

Traditionally, Christianity posits Heaven as the location of God's throne and the abode of angels, often understood metaphorically. It is also seen as a state or condition of existence, representing the supreme fulfillment of *theosis* in the *beatific vision* of the Godhead. For the redeemed dead, Heaven is typically a temporary stage preceding the resurrection and their return to a "New Earth." The resurrected Jesus ascended to Heaven, where he sits at the Right Hand of God, awaiting his Second Coming. Figures like Enoch, Elijah, and Jesus are said to have entered Heaven alive, and Roman Catholic teaching holds that Mary, mother of Jesus, was assumed into Heaven as the Queen of Heaven.

Second-century theologian Irenaeus of Lyons noted a belief in different "mansions" in the afterlife, with some dwelling in the heavens, others in paradise, and some in "the city." While the Greek word *ouranos* primarily refers to the physical sky, it is also used metaphorically for God's dwelling and the blessed. Pope John Paul II clarified that Christian Heaven is "neither an abstraction nor a physical place in the clouds, but a living, personal relationship with the Holy Trinity."

Rabbinical Judaism

While Christian thought extensively discusses Heaven, the Jewish concept of the afterlife, known as *olam haba* (the World-to-come), is less frequently elaborated. The Torah offers limited direct commentary on post-mortem survival. However, by the rabbinic period, two key ideas had become prominent: the immortal soul, likely influenced by Greek philosophy, and the resurrection of the dead, possibly of Persian origin (though this derivation has been questioned).

In rabbinic thought, these two concepts are synthesized: the soul departs the body at death but is reunited with it at the resurrection. This framework underpins the teaching that human actions are rewarded or punished not in this life, but after death, either immediately or following the resurrection. Around 1 CE, the Pharisees affirmed belief in an afterlife, while the Sadducees did not.

The Mishnah contains numerous aphorisms about the World-to-come, such as Rabbi Yaakov's analogy: "This world is like a lobby before the World to Come; prepare yourself in the lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall." Judaism maintains that the righteous of all nations are granted a share in the World-to-come. However, as Nicholas de Lange observes, Judaism offers no singular, definitive teaching on individual destiny after death, stating that "The only certainty is that each man must die – beyond that we can only guess."

Islam

Similar to Jewish traditions, the Qur'an and Hadith frequently reference the existence of seven *samāwāt* (سماوات), the plural of *samāʾ* (سماء), meaning 'heaven, sky, celestial sphere,' a term cognate with Hebrew *shamāyim*. Specific verses in the Qur'an, such as 41:12, 65:12, and 71:15, allude to these multiple heavens. The *Sidrat al-Muntaha*, an enigmatic Lote tree, signifies the boundary of the seventh heaven and the ultimate limit of divine creation and heavenly knowledge.

One interpretation suggests that all stars and galaxies, including the Milky Way, constitute the "first heaven," with six progressively larger worlds yet to be discovered. Shi'ite sources provide specific names for the seven heavens: Rafi', Qaeydum, Marum, Arfalun, Hay'oun, Arous, and Ajma'.

The afterlife destination for the righteous in Islam is *Jannah* (جنة), meaning "Garden [of Eden]," often translated as "paradise." The Qur'an describes Jannah as a place where "under it rivers flow; eternal is its fruit as well as its shade." Islam rejects the concept of original sin, believing all humans are born pure, and children automatically enter paradise upon death, irrespective of their parents' faith.

Jannah is primarily depicted in physical terms, where every wish is instantly fulfilled. Inhabitants experience immortal happiness, devoid of negative emotions, adorned in costly apparel, partaking in exquisite banquets, and reclining on luxurious couches. They rejoice in the company of family. Entry to Jannah is solely through God's mercy, contingent on one's good deeds outweighing sins. The greater the good deeds, the higher the level of Jannah attained. The Qur'an uses various names for Jannah, including *Al-Firdaws*, *Jannātu-'Adn* ("Garden of Eden" or "Everlasting Gardens"), *Jannatu-n-Na'īm* ("Garden of Delight"), *Jannatu-l-Ma'wa* ("Garden of Refuge"), *Dāru-s-Salām* ("Abode of Peace"), *Dāru-l-Muqāma* ("Abode of Permanent Stay"), *al-Muqāmu-l-Amin* ("The Secure Station"), and *Jannātu-l-Khuld* ("Garden of Immortality"). Hadiths further elaborate these as distinct regions within paradise.

Baháʼí Faith

The Baháʼí Faith interprets conventional descriptions of heaven (and hell) as symbolic rather than literal physical locations. Heaven is understood as a "spiritual condition" defined by one's closeness to God, while hell represents a state of remoteness from the Divine. Baháʼí writings emphasize that the nature of the soul's life in the afterlife transcends comprehension within the physical plane.

Despite this, it is affirmed that the soul retains its consciousness and individuality, remembering its physical life and capable of recognizing and communicating with other souls. Entry into the next life is viewed as a potential source of immense joy. Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, likened death to birth, explaining, "The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in the womb of its mother." This analogy underscores the Baháʼí perspective that earthly existence is a preparatory stage for the soul's development and perfection of qualities essential for the next life. Spiritual progress is achieved by following the path revealed by the current Manifestation of God, which Baháʼís believe to be Baháʼu'lláh, who wrote, "Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved."

Baháʼí teachings also describe a hierarchy of souls in the afterlife, where a soul's merits determine its station. Souls lower in this hierarchy cannot fully grasp the station of those above them. Continuous progress is possible in the afterlife, influenced not only by the soul's conscious efforts (the nature of which is unknown) but also by divine grace, the prayers of others, and good deeds performed on Earth in that person's name.

Mandaeism

Mandaeans adhere to a belief in an afterlife or heaven known as *Alma d-Nhura* (World of Light). This World of Light is conceived as the primeval, transcendent realm from which both *Tibil* (the terrestrial world) and the *World of Darkness* originated. The Great Living God (*Hayyi Rabbi*) and his *uthras* (angels or guardians) reside within this luminous domain. Furthermore, the World of Light is the source of *Piriawis*, the Great *Yardena* (or Jordan River) of Life, symbolizing its vital and foundational role in their cosmology.

Gnosticism

In Gnostic cosmology, particularly as described in the codex *On the Origin of the World*, the universe features seven heavens. These heavens were created and are individually governed by the lesser god, or Demiurge, known as Yaldabaoth, along with his Archons. Beyond these seven realms lies the eighth heaven, which is the dwelling place of the benevolent, higher divinities, or Aeons. Gnostic eschatology foresees a dramatic conclusion: at the "end of days," the seven heavens of the Archons are destined to collapse upon one another, with Yaldabaoth's heaven splitting apart, causing the stars within his celestial sphere to fall.

Chinese Religious Concepts

Tian: Mandate & Ancestors

In indigenous Chinese Confucian traditions, *Tian* (天), or Heaven, represents a pivotal concept. It is understood as the dwelling place of ancestors and the source from which emperors derived their "mandate to rule," a crucial element in dynastic propaganda. *Tian* functions on a spectrum, ranging from a synonym for *Shangdi* ("Supreme Deity") to a more naturalistic representation of nature and the physical sky. The character for *Tian* itself originated from the name of the supreme deity of the Zhou dynasty, who, after conquering the Shang dynasty in 1122 BCE, equated *Tian* with the Shang supreme deity *Shangdi*.

Anthropomorphic Heaven

The Zhou people attributed anthropomorphic qualities to Heaven. The etymology of the Chinese character for heaven or sky originally depicted a person with a large cranium, symbolizing its supreme authority. Heaven was believed to possess the faculties of sight and hearing, actively observing and overseeing all people. It was thought to be emotionally responsive to human actions, experiencing happiness or anger, and consequently bestowing blessings upon those who pleased it or sending calamities upon those who offended it. Confucius underscored Heaven's ultimate authority by asserting, "He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray."

Mohist Universal Love

Philosophers contemporary with Confucius, such as Mozi, adopted an even more theistic perspective on Heaven. Mozi posited Heaven as the divine ruler, paralleling the earthly authority of the "Son of Heaven" (the King of Zhou). He acknowledged the existence of spirits and minor gods but relegated their function to merely executing Heaven's will, punishing wrongdoers and acting as celestial agents, thereby reinforcing Heaven's monotheistic governance of the world. This high monotheism led Mohism to champion "universal love" (*jian'ai*, 兼愛), advocating that just as Heaven loves all people equally, so too should individuals extend love to all human beings without distinction between their own relatives and others.

"I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk that so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present."

Mozi, Will of Heaven, Chapter 27, Paragraph 6, ca. 5th Century BC

Later Developments

Mozi critiqued the Confucians of his era for deviating from Confucius's original teachings. However, by the later Han dynasty, under the influence of Xunzi, the Chinese concept of Heaven and Confucianism itself largely transitioned towards a naturalistic interpretation. Despite this shift, some Confucians continued to maintain that Heaven was the dwelling place of ancestors. The worship of Heaven persisted in China, marked by the construction of shrines—the most renowned being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing—and the offering of prayers. Rulers of every Chinese dynasty traditionally performed annual sacrificial rituals to Heaven, typically involving the slaughter of two healthy bulls.

Indian Religious Traditions

Buddhist Heavens

In Buddhism, numerous heavens exist, yet all are considered part of *samsara*, the cycle of rebirth. Individuals who accumulate positive *karma* may be reborn into one of these heavenly realms. However, their stay in heaven is not eternal; eventually, their good karma is exhausted, leading to rebirth in another realm—be it human, animal, or other forms. Consequently, Buddhists primarily focus on transcending the cycle of rebirth to achieve *bodhi* (enlightenment) and realize the transcendental state of *nirvana*, which is not a heaven but a "trans-mundane state."

Buddhist cosmology posits an impermanent universe where beings transmigrate through various existential "planes," with the human world being just one such realm. These planes are traditionally envisioned as a vertical continuum, with heavens situated above the human realm, and the realms of animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings below. Jan Chozen Bays notes that the realm of the *asura* was a later addition, inserted between the human realm and the heavens. A significant Buddhist heaven is *Trāyastriṃśa*, which bears resemblances to the Mount Olympus of Greek mythology.

Within the Mahayana worldview, there are also "pure lands" that exist outside this continuum. These lands are created by Buddhas upon attaining enlightenment. Rebirth in a pure land, such as that of Amitabha, is considered an assurance of Buddhahood, as beings reborn there do not regress into cyclical existence unless they consciously choose to do so to aid other beings—a core tenet of the Bodhisattva path. The Tibetan term *Bardo*, meaning "intermediate state," or its Sanskrit equivalent *antarabhāva*, describes the transitional state between death and rebirth.

Theravada Heavens (Aṅguttara Nikāya)

The Theravada tradition outlines several heavenly worlds, ordered from highest to lowest:

  • Brahmāloka: Inhabited by Brahmās, ruled by Mahābrahmā. Lifespan is not eternal.
  • Parinirmita-vaśavartin (Pali: Paranimmita-vasavatti): Devas here have "power over (others') creations," with desires fulfilled by other devas. Ruled by Vaśavartin (sometimes Māra). Beings are 3 *lī* (1,400m) tall and live for 9.216 billion years.
  • Nirmāṇarati (Pali: Nimmāṇaratī): Devas "delighting in their creations," capable of self-pleasing appearances. Ruled by Sunirmita. Beings are 2.5 *lī* (1,140m) tall and live for 2.304 billion years.
  • Tuṣita (Pali: Tusita): The world of "joyful" devas, notable as the abode of Bodhisattvas before human rebirth (e.g., Śvetaketu before becoming Gautama Buddha, Natha/Maitreya currently). Ruled by Santuṣita. Beings are 2 *lī* (910m) tall and live for 576 million years.
  • Yāma: Denizens have a lifespan of 144 million years.
  • Trāyastriṃśa (Pali: Tāvatimsa): Ruled by Indra or Shakra. Denizens address each other as "mārisa." Features Sudhamma Hall and Nandanavana garden. Beings live for 36 million years.
  • Cātummahārājika: The heaven "of the Four Great Kings" (Virūḍhaka, Dhṛtarāṣṭra, Virūpākṣa, Vaiśravaṇa). Includes devas guiding the Sun and Moon, and retinues of Kumbhaṇḍas, Gandharvas, Nāgas, and Yakṣas. Beings are 230m tall and live for 9 million or 90,000 years.

Mahayana Heavens (Śūraṅgama Sūtra)

The *Śūraṅgama Sūtra* details heavens within the Form Realm, categorized by Dhyana levels:

  • Third Dhyana: Pervasive Purity, Limitless Purity, Lesser Purity.
  • Second Dhyana: Light-Sound, Limitless Light, Lesser Light.
  • First Dhyana: Great Brahma, Ministers of Brahma, Multitudes of Brahma.

These levels are attained by those whose minds are pure enough to subdue coarser outflows, even without proper *samadhi*.

The Six Desire Heavens

These heavens are attained through the practice of the ten virtuous actions:

  • Heaven of the Comfort from Others' Transformations
  • Heaven of Bliss by Transformation
  • Tushita Heaven
  • Suyama Heaven
  • Trayastrimsha Heaven
  • Heaven of the Four Kings

Ouyi Zhixu clarifies that while the *Shurangama Sutra* emphasizes avoiding deviant sexual desire for these heavens, adherence to the 10 good conducts is also essential.

Tibetan Buddhism

Tibetan literature categorizes heavenly worlds into five main types:

  1. Akanishtha or Ghanavyiiha: The supreme heaven for beings who have achieved Nirvana, where they live eternally.
  2. Heaven of the Jinas
  3. Heavens of Formless Spirits: Four distinct realms.
  4. Brahmaloka: Sixteen realms, free from sensuality.
  5. Devaloka: Six realms, which still contain sensuality.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, the attainment of heaven is not considered the ultimate spiritual pursuit, as heaven itself is ephemeral and intrinsically linked to the physical body. Being bound by the *bhoot-tattvas* (elements), heaven is not a state of ultimate perfection but rather another form of pleasurable, yet mundane, material existence. Hindu cosmology describes several planes above the earthly realm, including *Bhuva Loka* and *Swarga Loka* (meaning "Good Kingdom"), which is the general term for heaven—a paradise of pleasure where many Hindu *Devatas* (deities), including Indra, reside alongside beatified mortals. Other higher planes include *Mahar Loka*, *Jana Loka*, *Tapa Loka*, and *Satya Loka*.

Crucially, since heavenly abodes are also part of the cycle of birth and death, any dweller of heaven or hell will eventually be recycled to a different plane and in a different form, dictated by their *karma* and *maya* (the illusion of Samsara). This cycle is only broken through *self-realization* by the *Jivatma* (individual soul). This profound self-realization is known as *Moksha* (also Turiya, Kaivalya), representing liberation from the cycle of birth and death and a final communion with *Brahman* (the ultimate reality).

The concept of Moksha is unique to Hinduism, signifying a liberated soul's attainment of oneness with Brahman or *Paramatma* (the Supreme Soul). Different philosophical schools within Hinduism, such as Vedanta, Mimansa, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Yoga, offer nuanced interpretations of Brahman, the observable Universe, its genesis and cyclical destruction, the Jivatma, Nature (*Prakriti*), and the precise path to achieving perfect bliss or Moksha.

In Vaishnava traditions, the highest heaven is *Vaikuntha*, which transcends the six heavenly *lokas* and exists outside the *mahat-tattva* (mundane world). It is the eternal dwelling place for eternally liberated souls who have achieved Moksha, where they reside in sublime beauty with Lakshmi and Narayana (a manifestation of Vishnu). The *Nasadiya Sukta* mentions the heavens/sky *Vyoman* as a place from which an overseeing entity surveys creation, yet it provocatively questions the omniscience of this overseer.

Jainism

Jain cosmology depicts the universe in a distinctive shape, often likened to an upright human form. In this cosmic structure, the *Deva Loka* (heavens) are situated at the symbolic "chest" region, serving as the abode for all souls currently experiencing the positive effects of their accumulated *karma*. These heavenly beings are referred to as *devas* (masculine) and *devis* (feminine).

Jainism does not posit a single heavenly abode but rather several distinct layers, each designed to appropriately reward souls based on their varying degrees of karmic merit. Conversely, beneath the "waist" of this cosmic figure lie the *Narka Loka* (hells). The middle section of this universe is where human, animal, insect, plant, and microscopic life forms reside. The purest souls, those who have achieved *Siddha* status (liberation from all karma), reside at the very southernmost (or top, in their convention) end of the Universe, a state of ultimate freedom and eternal bliss, referred to in Tamil literature as *தென்புலத்தார்* (Kural 43).

Sikhism

Sikh philosophy posits that both heaven and hell are experiential states within this world, where individuals reap the consequences of their *karma*. These are understood as stages of good and evil that can be lived and experienced during one's earthly life. The Sikh scriptures, particularly the *Guru Granth Sahib*, reflect this perspective. Bhagat Kabir, a revered saint whose teachings are included in the Guru Granth Sahib, explicitly rejects the notion of an otherworldly heaven, instead emphasizing that one can experience heaven on Earth through the spiritual company of holy people.

He claims to know the Lord, who is beyond measure and beyond thought; By mere words, he plans to enter heaven. I do not know where heaven is. Everyone claims that he plans to go there. By mere talk, the mind is not appeased. The mind is only appeased, when egotism is conquered. As long as the mind is filled with the desire for heaven, He does not dwell at the Lord's Feet. Says Kabeer, unto whom should I tell this? The Company of the Holy is heaven.

— Kabir, Guru Granth Sahib 325

Mesoamerican Cosmologies

Nahua Thirteen Heavens

The Nahua peoples, encompassing groups such as the Aztecs, Chichimecs, and Toltecs, developed a complex cosmological system that envisioned the heavens as being structured and separated into thirteen distinct levels. Each of these celestial levels was inhabited and governed by one or more specific Lords. The most paramount among these heavens was Omeyocan, meaning "Place of Two." This supreme realm was ruled by Ometeotl, the dual Lord, who was revered as the creator of the Dual-Genesis. In his masculine aspect, Ometeotl was known as Ometecuhtli (Two Lord), and in her feminine aspect, as Omecihuatl (Two Lady), embodying the fundamental duality of creation and governance within their celestial hierarchy.

Polynesian Heavenly Realms

Cosmic Divisions

Polynesian mythology presents diverse concepts of heavens and underworlds, varying across different islands. A common thread, however, is the perception of the universe as an egg or coconut, fundamentally divided into the world of humans (Earth), the upper world of heavenly gods, and the underworld. Each of these primary divisions is further subdivided, reminiscent of Dante Alighieri's *Divine Comedy*, though the specific number of divisions and their names differ significantly among Polynesian cultures.

Māori Heavens

In Māori mythology, the heavens are segmented into multiple realms, with tribal traditions reporting anywhere from two to fourteen levels. A widely recognized version enumerates ten distinct heavens:

  1. Kiko-rangi: Presided over by the gods Toumau.
  2. Waka-maru: The heaven of sunshine and rain.
  3. Nga-roto: The heaven of lakes, ruled by the god Maru.
  4. Hauora: The origin place for the spirits of newborn children.
  5. Nga-Tauira: Home to the servant gods.
  6. Nga-atua: Ruled by the hero Tawhaki.
  7. Autoia: Where human souls are created.
  8. Aukumea: The dwelling place for spirits.
  9. Wairua: Where spirit gods reside, awaiting those in the highest realm.
  10. Naherangi or Tuwarea: The abode of the great gods, presided over by Rehua.

The Māori believe these heavens are supported by pillars. Other Polynesian peoples, such as those in Hawaii, attribute this support to gods. Intriguingly, one Tahitian legend describes heaven as being supported by an octopus.

Paumotu, Tuamotus

The Polynesian understanding of the universe and its stratified divisions is vividly illustrated by an 1869 drawing created by a Tuamotuan chief. This depiction portrays nine heavens, further segmented into left and right halves. Each stage of these heavens is symbolically linked to a corresponding stage in the evolution of the Earth, which is depicted below. The lowest division, for instance, represents a primordial period when the heavens hung low over the Earth, inhabited by animals unknown to the islanders. The third division marks significant events such as the first murder, the initial burials, and the construction of the first canoes by the hero Rata. Ascending further, the fourth division signifies the emergence of the first coconut tree and other vital plant life, demonstrating a profound connection between celestial and terrestrial development.

Theosophical Perspectives

Individual Heavens & Reincarnation

In Theosophy, a spiritual movement primarily founded by Helena Blavatsky, it is believed that each religion, including Theosophy itself, possesses its own distinct heaven. These individual heavens are situated in various regions of the upper *astral plane* of Earth, aligning with the specific descriptions provided by each respective religion. A soul that has lived virtuously in its previous earthly life is believed to ascend to one of these heavens. Conversely, Theosophists posit that hell is located in the lower astral plane, extending downwards from the Earth's surface to its core. The upper astral plane, where these heavens reside, is often referred to as *Summerland*.

However, the stay in these heavens is not eternal. Theosophists believe that after an average period of approximately 1400 years, the soul is recalled back to Earth by the *Lords of Karma* to undergo another incarnation. This process continues through a cycle of incarnations. The ultimate and final heaven that souls eventually reach, billions of years in the future after completing their entire cycle of incarnations, is known as *Devachan*, representing a state of profound spiritual rest and assimilation of earthly experiences.

Neuroscientific Interpretations

Neural Perceptions of Heaven

In their 2005 work, *Inside the Neolithic Mind*, Lewis-Williams and Pearce propose a compelling argument for a neuroscientific basis behind the widespread perception of a tiered heavenly structure, often mirrored by similarly structured "circles of hell," across diverse cultures and historical periods. The striking consistency in reports of these experiences, spanning vast temporal and geographical distances, leads Lewis-Williams and Pearce to advocate for a neural explanation. They suggest that these percepts are not merely cultural constructs but rather real neural activations and subjective experiences that occur during specific *altered states of consciousness*, implying a universal human neurological capacity to experience such profound, structured visions of the afterlife.

Representations in Arts

Literary Depictions

The concept of Heaven, with its profound spiritual and philosophical implications, has inspired countless works of fiction and art throughout history. Among the most celebrated and influential literary descriptions of Heaven are those found in Dante Alighieri's *Paradiso*, which forms the final canticle of his monumental *Divine Comedy*. This epic poem offers an intricate and vivid journey through the celestial spheres, guided by Beatrice, culminating in the beatific vision of God. Another seminal work is John Milton's *Paradise Lost*, an epic poem that recounts the biblical story of the Fall of Man, providing extensive and imaginative portrayals of both Heaven and Hell, and the cosmic struggle between good and evil. These works have profoundly shaped Western cultural and theological understanding of the divine abode.

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References

References

  1.  The Anglo-Saxons knew the concept of Paradise, which they expressed with words such as neorxnawang.
  2.  Guus Kroonen: Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic (= Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, vol. 11). Brill, Leiden and Boston 2009, s. v. "Hemina- ~ *Hemna-". First published online: October 2010.
  3.  Gerhard Köbler, Altenglisches Wörterbuch. Fourth edition, online 2014 (in German), s. v. "heofon".
  4.  Sabatino Moscati Face of the Ancient Orient 2001 Page 174 "The first, called 'Kingship in Heaven', tells how this kingship passes from Alalu to Anu, ... was king in heaven, Alalu was seated on the throne and the mighty Anu, first among the gods,"
  5.  Attridge, Harold. W., and R. A. Oden, Jr. (1981), Philo of Byblos: The Phoenician History: Introduction, Critical Text, Translation, Notes, CBQMS 9 (Washington: D. C.: The Catholic Biblical Association of America).
  6.  Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (1993), "Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research". McGill-Queen's Press.
  7.  Farhang, Merh (2003) "The Zoroastrian Tradition: An Introduction to the Ancient Wisdom of Zarathushtras". Mazda Publishers.
  8.  Bible, Deuteronomy 10:14.
  9.  Bible, 1 Kings 8:27.
  10.  Bible, 1 Kings 22:19–23.
  11.  Bible, Job 1:6–12.
  12.  Bible, 2:1–6.
  13.  Bible, Isaiah 6.
  14.  Bible, Genesis 5:24.
  15.  Bible, 2 Kings 2:11.
  16.  Bible, Matthew 6:10.
  17.  Bible, Luke 11:2.
  18.  Green, J.B., Brown, J., & Perrin, N. (2018). Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship. IVP.
  19.  N.T. Wright Hope Deferred? Against the Dogma of Delay. Early Christianity 2018 pp.73-79
  20.  N.T. Wright Hope Deferred? Against the Dogma of Delay. Early Christianity 2018 p. 80
  21.  Bible, Matthew 5–7.
  22.  Bible, Luke 16:19–31.
  23.  Bible, Matthew 20:1–16.
  24.  Bible, Matthew 22:1–10.
  25.  Bible, Luke 15:11–32.
  26.  Bible, John 14:2.
  27.  Abdullah, Yusuf Ali (1946). The Holy Qur-an: Text, Translation and Commentary, Qatar National Printing Press. p. 1139, n. 3814.
  28.  Quran 13:35.
  29.  Quran 56:61.
  30.  Joseph Shih, "The Notion of God in the Ancient Chinese Religion," Numen, Vol. 16, Fasc. 2, pp. 99–138, Brill, 1969.
  31.  Homer Dubs, "Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy," Philosophy of East and West, Vol 9, No 3/4, pp 163–172, University of Hawaii Press: 1960.
  32.  But no soul actually goes through rebirth; see anatta.
  33.  Young, J. L. "The Paumotu Conception of the Heavens and of Creation", Journal of the Polynesian Society, 28 (1919), pp. 209–211.
  34.  Leadbeater, C.W. Outline of Theosophy. Wheaton, Illinois, US. 1915 Theosophical Publishing House.
A full list of references for this article are available at the Heaven Wikipedia page

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