Who was Henry III of England and during what years did he reign?

Henry III, also known as Henry of Winchester, was the King of England, Lord of Ireland, and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death in 1272. His reign was one of the longest in medieval English history, spanning 56 years.

When and where was Henry III born, and who were his parents?

Henry III was born on October 1, 1207, at Winchester Castle in Hampshire, England. He was the eldest son of King John of England and Isabella of Angoulême.

How did Henry III's reign begin, given his young age?

Henry III acceded to the throne at the age of nine during the First Barons' War. His early reign was managed by regents, initially William Marshal and then Hubert de Burgh, who guided the kingdom through the ongoing conflict and the complexities of royal governance.

What role did Cardinal Guala Bicchieri play in Henry III's early reign?

Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, the papal legate to England, played a significant role in securing Henry III's throne. He declared the war against the rebel barons a religious crusade and supported Henry's forces, which ultimately led to the defeat of the rebels at the battles of Lincoln and Sandwich in 1217.

What was the significance of the Great Charter of 1225 during Henry III's reign?

Henry III promised to abide by the Great Charter of 1225, a revised version of Magna Carta. This charter was important as it limited royal power and established protections for the rights of the major barons, influencing the balance of power between the Crown and the nobility.

What were the key military campaigns Henry III undertook in France, and what were their outcomes?

Henry III attempted to reconquer parts of his family's former territories in France twice. In 1230, his invasion of France was a debacle, and in 1242, his invasion of Poitou led to the disastrous Battle of Taillebourg. These campaigns were costly failures that diminished English holdings on the continent.

How did Henry III's personal rule differ from that of his predecessors after 1234?

After a revolt in 1232, Henry III began to rule personally rather than through senior ministers. He traveled less, focusing on his palaces and castles, and made policy decisions with his immediate advisors rather than through larger councils, which reduced the influence of those outside his inner circle.

What was Henry III's relationship with Edward the Confessor?

Henry III was deeply pious and adopted the Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor as his patron saint. He sought to emulate Edward's reign, which he believed had brought peace and harmony to England, and he invested heavily in rebuilding Westminster Abbey, a site closely associated with Edward.

How did Henry III's policies affect the Jewish community in England?

Henry III initially treated Jews as property of the Crown, using them for loans and taxation. He later imposed heavy fines and taxes on them, crippling their ability to lend money and contributing to anti-Jewish sentiment. He also introduced the Statute of Jewry to segregate the Jewish community.

What were the Provisions of Oxford and how did they impact Henry III's rule?

The Provisions of Oxford were a set of reforms enacted in 1258 by a coalition of barons who seized power in a coup d'état. These provisions aimed to reform royal government by establishing a council of 24 barons and churchmen, significantly limiting Henry's personal rule and increasing baronial influence.

What led to the Second Barons' War during Henry III's reign?

The Second Barons' War, which began in 1263, was triggered by growing baronial discontent over Henry's unpopular foreign policies, the influence of his Poitevin half-brothers, and the general mismanagement of the kingdom. Simon de Montfort emerged as a leader of the baronial opposition.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Lewes in 1264?

In the Battle of Lewes on May 14, 1264, Henry III's forces were defeated by Simon de Montfort's rebels. Henry and his son Edward were captured, forcing Henry to pardon the rebels and reinstate the Provisions of Oxford, effectively making him a figurehead.

How was Henry III freed from captivity after the Battle of Lewes?

Henry III was freed after his son, Edward, escaped captivity and defeated Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265. This victory allowed Edward to rescue his father and effectively end the Second Barons' War.

What was the Dictum of Kenilworth and its purpose?

The Dictum of Kenilworth, issued in 1266, was a policy proposed by Papal Legate Ottobuono de' Fieschi that Henry III adopted. It allowed for the return of rebels' lands in exchange for harsh fines, serving as a less draconian measure than immediate revenge after the Second Barons' War.

What was the Statute of Marlborough and when was it enacted?

The Statute of Marlborough was enacted in November 1267, following the Second Barons' War. It reissued many of the Provisions of Westminster, placing limitations on local royal officials and major barons but without restricting central royal authority.

What was Henry III's approach to royal government and law after 1234?

After 1234, Henry III abandoned the traditional policy of filling great offices of state with powerful barons. He left the justiciar post vacant and reduced the chancellor's role, forming a small royal council. Policy decisions were made personally by Henry and his advisors, making it harder for those outside his circle to influence governance.

How did Henry III's court differ from those of his predecessors?

Henry III's court followed European styles and traditions, influenced by his Angevin family. French was the spoken language, and it had close links to royal courts in France, Castile, the Holy Roman Empire, and Sicily. Henry also sponsored writers favored by other European rulers.

What was Henry III's level of travel and his focus on architecture?

Henry III traveled less than previous kings, preferring a more settled life at his palaces. He was an exceptionally dedicated patron of art and architecture, undertaking extensive renovations at Westminster Palace and Abbey, as well as major works at Windsor Castle, the Tower of London, Lincoln, and Dover.

What significant reforms did Henry III implement in the English currency system?

In 1247, Henry III reformed the silver coinage by replacing the Short Cross pennies with a new Long Cross design. He also attempted to introduce gold pennies in 1257, following Italian trends, but this initiative was ultimately abandoned due to overvaluation and merchant complaints.

Describe Henry III's religious devotion and patronage.

Henry III was known for his genuine piety, attending mass daily and generously supporting religious causes and the poor. He was particularly devoted to Edward the Confessor and supported mendicant orders and the emerging universities of Oxford and Cambridge.

What was the nature of the relationship between Henry III and Louis IX of France?

Initially rivals, Henry III and Louis IX of France developed a close friendship later in Henry's reign, partly due to their wives' kinship. They engaged in diplomacy, including the Treaty of Paris (1259), and shared a competitive piety, with both kings undertaking crusades and promoting religious relics.

What was the 'Sicilian business' and how did it impact Henry III's finances?

The 'Sicilian business' refers to Henry III's attempt to secure the Kingdom of Sicily for his son Edmund, which involved significant financial commitments and agreements with the papacy. This endeavor led to immense debt for Henry, as he had to borrow heavily and seek parliamentary funds, which were often refused.

How did Henry III attempt to influence the Holy Roman Empire elections?

Henry III supported his brother, Richard of Cornwall, in his bid to become King of the Romans. He provided financial backing to Richard's potential supporters in the Empire, aiming to forge an alliance against Louis IX of France, though this strategy was complicated by the improving relations between England and France.

What were the main reasons for the baronial revolt in 1258?

The baronial revolt in 1258 stemmed from widespread discontent concerning the King's officials' methods of raising funds, the influence of Poitevin relatives at court, his unpopular Sicilian policy, and the abuse of Jewish loan systems. The English Church also had grievances against the King.

What was the significance of the Treaty of Paris in 1259?

The Treaty of Paris in 1259 marked a formal peace between England and France. Henry III gave up his claims to lands in northern France but was recognized as the legitimate ruler of Gascony and neighboring southern territories, acknowledging Louis IX as his feudal lord for these lands.

How did Henry III's relationship with his son Edward evolve, particularly during the Second Barons' War?

Initially, Edward opposed the baronial revolution but later allied with Simon de Montfort. However, after the Battle of Lewes, Edward escaped captivity and switched his allegiance back to his father, playing a crucial role in defeating Montfort at the Battle of Evesham and securing Henry's release.

What was the historical perception of Henry III by contemporary chroniclers like Matthew Paris?

Matthew Paris, a prominent chronicler, depicted Henry III's life in illustrations that were often unflattering, despite his personal relationship with the King. Paris disliked many of Henry's actions and was critical of the influence of foreigners and the papacy during his reign.

How has the historiography of Henry III's reign evolved over time?

Early historians focused on chronicler accounts and contemporary concerns about church-state relations and papal influence. Victorian scholars examined constitutional developments, while 20th-century historians utilized financial and administrative records, highlighting his fiscal challenges. Modern historiography acknowledges both his positive qualities and his failures as a ruler.

What was the outcome of Henry III's attempt to have his son Edmund placed on the throne of Sicily?

Henry III's bid to place his son Edmund on the throne of Sicily was ultimately unsuccessful. Despite initial agreements with the papacy, the financial demands and ongoing conflicts in Italy meant that Edmund never gained the Sicilian crown, and the endeavor left Henry heavily indebted.

What was the role of the Savoyard relatives of Eleanor of Provence in Henry III's court?

Following Eleanor of Provence's marriage to Henry III, many of her Savoyard relatives came to England. They were integrated into the English nobility, with Henry arranging marriages for them and granting them estates. These relatives formed an important political base for Eleanor and contributed to the court's European character.

How did Henry III's reign contribute to the development of Parliament?

During Henry III's reign, the term 'parliament' began to be used for gatherings of the royal court. These assemblies were used to raise taxes, and counties started sending regular delegations, representing a broader community than just the major barons, thus contributing to the evolution of parliamentary institutions.

What was the significance of the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267?

The Treaty of Montgomery, signed between Henry III and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, recognized Llywelyn as the Prince of Wales and granted him substantial land concessions. This treaty marked a significant moment in the relationship between the English Crown and the Welsh princes.

What was Henry III's legacy regarding Westminster Abbey?

Henry III invested heavily in Westminster Abbey, rebuilding it in the latter half of his reign. He intended it to be a replacement for the Angevin mausoleum at Fontevraud Abbey and oversaw the grand reburial of Edward the Confessor in a new shrine, reflecting his devotion and his desire to enhance the abbey's status.

What is the historical assessment of Henry III's character and ruling abilities?

Historians describe Henry III as devout, kind, and merciful, but also naive and unworldly, struggling to manage his court and implement realistic reforms. While some view him as an innocent ruler who failed due to circumstances, others see him possessing wisdom and determination in certain aspects, particularly in his religious devotion and patronage.

How did Henry III's policies towards Jews contribute to later antisemitism in England?

Henry III's policies of excessive taxation, anti-Jewish legislation, and propaganda, particularly the endorsement of the 'Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln' story, created conditions for increased antisemitism. These actions contributed to themes of Jewish conspiracy and magic, laying groundwork for later pogroms and the eventual Edict of Expulsion in 1290.

What was the role of Simon de Montfort in Henry III's reign?

Simon de Montfort was a prominent baron who initially allied with Henry III but later became a leading figure in the baronial opposition. He seized power in 1263, leading the Second Barons' War, and briefly ruled England in Henry's name after the Battle of Lewes, though he was eventually defeated and killed at the Battle of Evesham.

What was the significance of the Mise of Amiens in 1264?

The Mise of Amiens was Louis IX of France's arbitration decision regarding the English baronial conflict. Louis condemned the rebels, upheld Henry III's rights, and annulled the Provisions of Oxford, siding with the royal prerogative over baronial demands, which reignited the civil war.

What were the key characteristics of Henry III's personality as described by historians?

Henry III is often described as having an amiable, easy-going, and sympathetic personality. He was unaffected, honest, and readily showed his emotions, being moved by religious sermons. While generally mild-mannered, he could occasionally display a fierce temper.

What was the impact of the First Barons' War on Henry III's early life?

The First Barons' War, which began before Henry III's birth and continued through his minority, created a tumultuous start to his reign. It led to the loss of significant continental territories and necessitated regency rule and military campaigns to secure his throne.

How did Henry III's relationship with his mother, Isabella of Angoulême, influence his early life?

Henry III's mother, Isabella of Angoulême, played a role in his early life, with him initially being looked after by a wet nurse away from his father's court. She later returned to France after marrying Hugh X de Lusignan, but her influence on Henry's upbringing is noted as being significant.

What was the purpose of the Domus Conversorum established by Henry III?

The Domus Conversorum, established in London in 1232, was intended to provide a place for Jews to convert to Christianity. Efforts to convert Jews intensified after 1239, partly due to their deteriorating economic conditions under Henry's policies.

What was the outcome of the Treaty of Kingston?

The Treaty of Kingston was an attempt by Henry III to settle the baronial crisis by introducing a system of arbitration for disputes between the King and barons. While it aimed to soften policies and restore stability, Henry's subsequent actions, including resuming his unpopular Sicilian policy, undermined its effectiveness.

What is the significance of Henry III's reign in terms of length?

Henry III's reign, lasting 56 years, was the longest in medieval English history. This record would not be surpassed by an English or British monarch until George III in the 18th and 19th centuries.

What role did Henry III's brother, Richard of Cornwall, play during his reign?

Richard of Cornwall, Henry III's brother, was a significant figure who supported Henry's regency government and later played a role in averting conflict between baronial factions. He was also elected King of the Romans in 1256, a move supported by Henry, and continued to be involved in English politics.

How did Henry III's reign conclude?

Henry III died on November 16, 1272, in Westminster, likely with his wife Eleanor in attendance. He had been increasingly infirm in his final years, focusing on peace and religious devotions. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Edward I.

What was the fate of Henry III's body after his death?

Henry III was buried in Westminster Abbey, in front of the high altar, at his request. His body was later moved to its current location in 1290, and his tomb effigy, created by William Torell, is noted for its naturalistic style, though it may not be a precise likeness.

Were there any attempts to canonize Henry III?

Yes, there were reports of miracles occurring at Henry III's tomb after his death, and his wife Eleanor likely hoped he would be recognized as a saint. However, his son Edward was skeptical of these claims, and Henry was never officially canonized.

What was the nature of the relationship between Henry III and the Welsh princes?

Henry III's position in Wales strengthened during his personal rule, particularly after the death of Llywelyn the Great. He conducted military campaigns, built castles, and expanded royal lands, increasing his dominance over Welsh princes, though he faced renewed Welsh resistance later in his reign.

How did Henry III manage relations with Scotland?

Henry III maintained peace with Scotland, acting as the feudal lord of Alexander II and later Alexander III. He asserted his authority at key moments but lacked the resources for significant intervention. The Treaty of York in 1237 secured his northern frontier, and he had a generally good relationship with Alexander III.

What was the significance of the Great Seal of the Realm during Henry III's reign?

The image of Henry III's great seal is noted as representing royal authority. The seal was crucial for authenticating royal documents and decrees, symbolizing the king's power and the legitimacy of his rule.

What impact did Henry III's extensive building projects have?

Henry III's patronage of architecture resulted in significant improvements to royal palaces and castles, including Westminster, Windsor Castle, and the Tower of London. These projects not only enhanced royal residences but also influenced architectural styles across England and Wales.

Henry Iii Of England Wiki: Henry III: The Confessor King's Chronicle of Medieval England

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Background and Childhood

Royal Lineage

Henry III, born on 1 October 1207, was the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême. He acceded to the throne in 1216 during the tumultuous First Barons' War, inheriting a kingdom fractured by internal conflict and diminished continental possessions. His early life was shaped by the political instability following his father's reign.

Angevin Legacy

Henry was born into the vast Angevin Empire, a complex network of territories stretching across Western Europe. His grandfather, Henry II, had established this dominion, but by John's reign, much of the French territory, including Normandy, had been lost to the French Crown. This legacy of territorial loss profoundly influenced Henry's foreign policy objectives.

Early Education

Henry's upbringing was entrusted to figures like Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester. His education included military training and the development of a personality described as amiable, easy-going, and sympathetic, though capable of flashes of temper. These formative years occurred amidst significant political upheaval and the ongoing struggle for royal authority.

Minority Rule (1216–1226)

Coronation and Regency

Crowned King at Gloucester Abbey in 1216, and later at Westminster Abbey in 1220, the young Henry's reign was initially guided by a regency council. William Marshal, the Earl of Pembroke, served as regent, providing crucial stability during the First Barons' War. Following Marshal's death in 1219, Hubert de Burgh assumed a leading role in governance.

End of the Barons' War

Cardinal Guala Bicchieri played a pivotal role in rallying support for Henry, declaring the conflict a religious crusade. Key victories at the Battles of Lincoln (1217) and Sandwich (1217) secured the young king's position. The war concluded with the Treaty of Lambeth, which saw Prince Louis renounce his claim to the English throne and Henry reaffirm Magna Carta.

Restoring Authority

Following the war, the regency government, led by Hubert de Burgh after 1221, faced the challenge of restoring royal authority. This involved re-establishing royal courts, collecting revenues, and asserting control over recalcitrant barons and Welsh princes. The reissue of Magna Carta in 1225 marked a significant step in defining the relationship between the Crown and its subjects.

Early Rule (1227–1234)

French Ambitions

Upon assuming full royal authority in 1227, Henry harboured ambitions to reclaim his family's lost territories in France. His 1230 invasion of Brittany and Poitou proved a costly failure, highlighting the growing financial disparity between the English Crown and the French monarchy. This expedition yielded no territorial gains and significantly depleted royal resources.

Richard Marshal's Revolt

The dismissal of Hubert de Burgh in 1232 and the ascendancy of Peter des Roches led to political friction. Richard Marshal, Earl of Pembroke, led a revolt against the King's policies, arguing that royal authority was undermining established legal rights. This internal conflict underscored the fragility of royal power and the persistent influence of powerful baronial factions.

Towards Personal Rule

Following the resolution of Marshal's revolt, mediated by Archbishop Edmund of Abingdon, Henry began to rule more directly. The dismissal of Peter des Roches in 1234 marked the end of rule through powerful ministers, ushering in an era where Henry would personally direct the kingdom's affairs, albeit with significant reliance on his own judgment and advisers.

Personal Rule & Policies (1234–1258)

Royal Marriage

In 1236, Henry married Eleanor of Provence. Described as cultured and politically astute, Eleanor proved a formidable partner, often displaying greater resolve than her husband. Their union produced five children, including the future Edward I, and fostered diplomatic ties with continental powers, particularly in southern France.

Financial Strain & Foreign Policy

Henry's reign was marked by persistent financial challenges, exacerbated by his expensive foreign policy, particularly the failed Sicilian venture. His attempts to fund these ambitions through taxation and levies often met with resistance from Parliament, contributing to growing baronial discontent. His diplomatic strategy increasingly focused on alliances rather than military conquest.

Religious Devotion

Henry was known for his profound piety, attending daily mass and generously supporting religious causes and mendicant orders. He emulated Edward the Confessor, his patron saint, seeking to restore a sense of order and spiritual devotion to the monarchy. His patronage of Westminster Abbey and its relics was particularly significant.

Jewish Policies

Henry's policies towards the Jewish community were complex and often exploitative. Initially protected by the regency, the Jewish population flourished, but Henry later imposed heavy financial demands and discriminatory legislation, such as the Statute of Jewry. These actions, coupled with anti-Jewish propaganda, significantly worsened their security and economic standing.

Later Reign & Conflict (1258–1272)

The Provisions of Oxford

By 1258, widespread dissatisfaction with Henry's rule—stemming from financial mismanagement, the influence of foreign courtiers (Poitevins and Savoyards), and his Sicilian policy—culminated in a baronial revolt. The Provisions of Oxford established a council of barons to oversee royal governance, effectively limiting the King's personal authority.

Second Barons' War

The failure to implement reforms and the subsequent annulment of the Provisions by Louis IX of France ignited the Second Barons' War. Simon de Montfort emerged as the leader of the baronial opposition. Henry was captured at the Battle of Lewes (1264), leaving Montfort in de facto control of the kingdom.

Edward's Triumph

Henry's son, Edward, escaped captivity and rallied royalist forces. The decisive victory at the Battle of Evesham (1265) led to Simon de Montfort's death and the restoration of Henry's authority. The subsequent Dictum of Kenilworth offered terms for reconciliation, allowing rebels to regain lands upon payment of heavy fines.

Reconstruction and Peace

In his final years, Henry focused on rebuilding royal authority and managing the kingdom's finances, which remained precarious. He negotiated peace treaties with Wales and Scotland and continued his patronage of Westminster Abbey. Edward played an increasingly prominent role in governance, preparing for his eventual succession.

Death and Legacy

Final Years

Henry III died on 16 November 1272, after a reign of 56 years, the longest in medieval English history. Increasingly infirm, he spent his final years focused on religious devotion and ensuring a stable succession for his son, Edward. His reign, though marked by conflict and financial difficulties, laid foundations for future English governance.

Westminster Abbey

Henry's most enduring architectural legacy is his extensive rebuilding of Westminster Abbey. He envisioned it as a royal mausoleum and a symbol of English piety and royal power, rivaling continental structures. His tomb, a masterpiece of medieval metalwork, remains a focal point within the Abbey.

Sainthood and Memory

Despite reports of miracles after his death, Henry was never formally canonised. His reign is often characterized by a blend of piety, administrative challenges, and baronial conflict, leaving a complex legacy that continues to be debated by historians. His long reign provided a period of relative stability following the turmoil of his father's rule.

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G. Seabourne. "Eleanor of Brittany and her Treatment by King John and Henry III", Nottingham Medieval Studies, Vol. LI (2007), p. 110.

Huscroft 2006, p. 102, Langmuir 1972, pp. 477â478

Lewis 1987, pp. 201â207; Davis 2013, p. 105

John Marriott, English history in English fiction. London: Blackie, 1940. (p.59)

A full list of references for this article are available at the Henry III of England Wikipedia page

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Henry III: The Confessor King's Chronicle

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Background and Childhood 👶

👑 Royal Lineage

🏰 Angevin Legacy

🛡️ Early Education

Minority Rule (1216–1226) ⚖️

👑 Coronation and Regency

⚔️ End of the Barons' War

📜 Restoring Authority

Early Rule (1227–1234) 🚀

🇫🇷 French Ambitions

💥 Richard Marshal's Revolt

🕊️ Towards Personal Rule

Personal Rule & Policies (1234–1258) 🏛️

💍 Royal Marriage

💰 Financial Strain & Foreign Policy

⛪ Religious Devotion

✡️ Jewish Policies

Later Reign & Conflict (1258–1272) 🔥

✊ The Provisions of Oxford

⚔️ Second Barons' War

🦁 Edward's Triumph

rebuilding Reconstruction and Peace

Death and Legacy ⚰️

🕊️ Final Years

🏛️ Westminster Abbey

🌟 Sainthood and Memory

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Background and Childhood

Royal Lineage

Angevin Legacy

Early Education

Minority Rule (1216–1226)

Coronation and Regency

End of the Barons' War

Restoring Authority

Early Rule (1227–1234)

French Ambitions

Richard Marshal's Revolt

Towards Personal Rule

Personal Rule & Policies (1234–1258)

Royal Marriage

Financial Strain & Foreign Policy

Religious Devotion

Jewish Policies

Later Reign & Conflict (1258–1272)

The Provisions of Oxford

Second Barons' War

Edward's Triumph

Reconstruction and Peace

Death and Legacy

Final Years

Westminster Abbey

Sainthood and Memory

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Considerations