What historical period does 'Late Antiquity' encompass, and who popularized this term in Anglophone scholarship?

Late Antiquity is the period that follows classical antiquity and extends into the beginning of the Early Middle Ages. The term was popularized in Anglophone scholarship by Peter Brown in 1971, and it has since gained widespread acceptance as a periodization.

What significant transformations characterized the era of Late Antiquity?

Late Antiquity was an era of profound political and religious transformation. It saw the emergence or ascendance of Christianity, rabbinic Judaism, and Islam, the collapse of both the Western Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire, and the onset of the Arab conquests. Concurrently, the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire became a militarized and Christianized society, and the period also fostered significant cultural innovation in literature and art.

What is the general timeframe for the beginning and end of Late Antiquity?

While the exact start and end dates are debated, the beginning of Late Antiquity is typically placed in the second or third centuries CE, and its conclusion is generally set between the sixth and eighth centuries CE, with variations depending on the specific region.

How did the term 'Spätantike' originate and gain currency in English scholarship?

The German term 'Spätantike,' meaning 'late antiquity,' was popularized by Alois Riegl in the early 20th century among German-speaking historians. It gained currency in English scholarship largely through the works of Peter Brown, particularly his 1971 survey 'The World of Late Antiquity,' which offered a revised, more vibrant view of the period compared to earlier perspectives.

How did Peter Brown's work challenge previous historical views of Classical culture during Late Antiquity?

Peter Brown's 'The World of Late Antiquity' (1971) challenged Edward Gibbon's view of Classical culture as stale and ossified. Instead, Brown presented Late Antiquity as a dynamic period of renewals and new beginnings, offering a fresh understanding of the cultural changes in the Western world.

What continuities are emphasized by historians who use the term 'Late Antiquity' regarding the Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages?

Historians using 'Late Antiquity' emphasize the continuities between the later Roman Empire, as reorganized by Diocletian, and the Early Middle Ages. They highlight that the foundations of medieval culture were already developing within the Christianized Roman Empire and continued in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire until the advent of Islam. Additionally, some Germanic tribes, like the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, saw themselves as continuing the 'Roman' tradition.

Why has the term 'Dark Ages' largely been abandoned in favor of 'Late Antiquity'?

The term 'Dark Ages' was historically used to describe a period of general decline in population, technological knowledge, and living standards in Europe, particularly from the early fifth century. However, it has largely been abandoned as a historiographical epoch in favor of 'Late Antiquity' to emphasize the dynamic transformations and cultural developments that occurred, rather than solely focusing on decline.

What significant organizational changes did the Roman Empire undergo starting with Diocletian's reign?

Starting with Diocletian's reign (284–305 CE), the Roman Empire underwent considerable organizational changes, including the custom of splitting the Empire into Eastern and Western portions, each ruled by multiple emperors simultaneously, a system known as the Tetrarchy.

What major religious shift occurred in the Roman Empire during the 4th century?

The 4th century saw the significant Christianization of the Roman Empire. The Diocletianic Persecution of Christians ended under Galerius, Christianity was made legal by Constantine the Great with the Edict of Milan in 313, and by the late 4th century, Theodosius I proclaimed Nicene Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire.

Which city rose to prominence as the largest in the Late Roman Empire by the 5th century?

Constantinople became the permanent imperial residence in the East by the 5th century and surpassed Rome as the largest city in the Late Roman Empire and the Mediterranean basin. It was supplied by the 250 km-long Aqueduct of Valens and featured the tallest Roman triumphal columns.

What events led to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire?

Migrations of Germanic, Hunnic, and Slavic tribes from the late 4th century onwards severely disrupted Roman rule. This culminated in the Sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410, another Sack of Rome by the Vandals in 455, and ultimately the collapse of the Western Roman Empire by 476 CE.

What cultural fusion emerged in Europe following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire?

The collapse of the Western Roman Empire and its replacement by 'barbarian kingdoms' led to a cultural fusion of Greco-Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions, which formed the foundational culture of subsequent Europe.

What were some of Justinian the Great's significant achievements and challenges in the 6th century?

In the 6th century, Justinian the Great's campaigns led to the reincorporation of the Ostrogothic and Vandal Kingdoms into the Byzantine Empire, bringing Rome and much of Italy and North Africa back under imperial control. He also constructed the Hagia Sophia, a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture, and his reign saw the first outbreak of the devastating first plague pandemic.

What extreme environmental and health crises affected the mid-6th century?

The middle of the 6th century was marked by extreme climate events, including the volcanic winter of 535–536 and the Late Antique Little Ice Age, alongside a disastrous pandemic known as the Plague of Justinian, which first broke out in 541 CE.

How did the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 contribute to the rise of Islam?

The devastating Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 and the campaigns of Khosrow II and Heraclius significantly weakened both empires, thereby facilitating the emergence of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula during the lifetime of Muhammad.

What marked the general end of Late Antiquity in the 7th century?

The Muslim conquest of the Levant and Persia, which overthrew the Sasanian Empire and permanently wrested two-thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire's territory, along with the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate and the beginning of the middle Byzantine period under the Heraclian dynasty, generally marks the end of Late Antiquity.

What were the three major monotheistic religions that saw formation and evolution during Late Antiquity?

One of the most crucial transformations in Late Antiquity was the formation and evolution of the Abrahamic religions: Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and eventually, Islam.

What was the significance of Emperor Constantine I's conversion and the Edict of Milan?

Emperor Constantine I's conversion in 312 CE was a milestone in the spread of Christianity. He confirmed the religion's legalization with the Edict of Milan in 313, jointly issued with Licinius, which transformed the classical Roman world by allowing Christianity to flourish openly.

Beyond legalization, what other significant contributions did Constantine I make to Christian history?

Constantine I played a pivotal role in Christian history by convening and attending the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 325, subsidizing the construction of churches and sanctuaries like the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and engaging in theological discussions such as the timing of Christ's resurrection in relation to Passover.

When did Christian monasticism emerge, and what was its impact on Christian spirituality?

Christian monasticism emerged in the 3rd century and became a major step in the development of Christian spirituality. Initially operating outside episcopal authority, it grew immensely successful, becoming a key Christian practice by the 8th century and influencing many aspects of religious life through various ascetic practices.

What other religious and philosophical movements were present during Late Antiquity alongside the rise of Abrahamic religions?

Late Antiquity also saw the decline of Roman state religion and a period of dynamic religious experimentation. This included syncretic sects like Gnosticism and Neoplatonism, the Chaldaean oracles, and novel movements such as Hermeticism. There was also a short-lived attempt by Flavius Claudius Julianus to create an organized pagan state religion based on reforms advocated by Apollonius of Tyana.

How did Mahayana Buddhism and Manichaeism develop and spread during this period?

Mahayana Buddhism developed in India and along the Silk Road in Central Asia, while Manichaeism, a Dualist faith originating in Mesopotamia, spread both East and West, even contending with Christianity for a time in the Roman Empire.

What technological advancement in book format influenced the new religions of Late Antiquity?

Many new religions in Late Antiquity benefited from the emergence of the parchment codex (bound book) over the papyrus volumen (scroll). The codex offered quicker access to key materials and easier portability, which facilitated the rise of synoptic exegesis and papyrology.

How did the Christian community in the 4th century develop a distinct division between laity and clergy?

Within the newly legitimized Christian community of the 4th century, a clearer division emerged between the laity and an increasingly celibate male leadership. These clergy members presented themselves as distinct from traditional Roman public and private life motivations, such as pride and ambition, and differed from the married pagan leadership.

What was the expected norm for urban clergy regarding marriage and family life in Late Antique Christianity?

In Late Antique Christianity, celibacy, sometimes taking the form of abstinence from sexual relations after marriage, became the expected norm for urban clergy. This detachment contributed to the upper clergy achieving a prestige level comparable to urban notables, known as the *potentes* or *dynatoi*.

What were the two prevailing historical theses regarding the rise of Islam in the context of Late Antiquity?

Two main theses prevail regarding the rise of Islam: the traditional 'out of Arabia' thesis, which views Islam as a new, alien element that catastrophically ended Late Antiquity (associated with the Pirenne Thesis); and a more recent thesis, championed by scholars like Peter Brown, which sees Islam as a product of the late antique world itself, sharing cultural and religious characteristics with its contemporaries.

What evidence supports the thesis that Islam was a product of the late antique world?

Historians supporting this thesis point to similarities between Islam and other late antique religions and philosophies, including prominent piety, asceticism, the role of 'holy persons,' universalist monotheism tied to military power, engagement with Greek thought, apocalypticism in Islamic theology, and the Quran's apparent reactions to contemporary religious and cultural issues. Close economic and military ties between Arabia, the Byzantine Empire, and the Sasanian Empire also suggest Arabia's integration into the late antique world.

How did the Roman citizen elite's path to success change during Late Antiquity?

Under pressure from taxation and the high cost of public entertainments, the Roman citizen elite found that security lay in serving the distant emperor and his court. After Constantine centralized government in Constantinople, success for the upper classes became more bureaucratic, requiring intricate channels of access to the emperor, rather than relying on classical education or senatorial magistracies.

What architectural changes in Roman cities indicated decline or transformation during Late Antiquity?

Archaeological evidence shows that Roman cities experienced transformation or decline, characterized by the subdivision of expansive formal spaces in both private homes (*domus*) and public basilicas, and the encroachment of artisans' shops into public thoroughfares, which eventually led to the development of marketplaces (*souks*).

What happened to the population of Rome during Late Antiquity, and what caused a significant drop?

The population of Rome drastically declined from 800,000 at the beginning of Late Antiquity to 30,000 by its end. The most precipitous drop occurred with the breaking of the aqueducts during the Gothic War, which severely impacted the city's water supply and habitability.

What was the general economic trend in Europe during Late Antiquity?

Europe experienced an overall population decline and a reversion to a more subsistence economy during Late Antiquity. Long-distance markets largely disappeared, leading to a greater reliance on local production and consumption rather than extensive commercial networks and specialized industries.

How did urban life in the Greek East differ from the West during Late Antiquity?

In the Greek East, urban continuity was more pronounced, particularly in Constantinople, which remained a vibrant center for political participation and religious disputes. While affected by the Plague of Justinian, city life in the East, especially in regions like Syria, Jordan, and Palestine, continued into the 8th century, unlike the more widespread urban collapse in the West.

What were the 'victory cities' founded by the Visigoths in the western Mediterranean?

Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Visigoths founded four or five 'victory cities' in the western Mediterranean, primarily for military purposes and to celebrate victories. Examples include Reccopolis, Victoriacum (possibly modern Vitoria), Lugo id est Luceo, Ologicus (modern Olite), and potentially Baiyara (modern Montoro).

What was the fate of Roman towns and cities in Britain during Late Antiquity?

Most Roman towns and cities in Britain were in decline, apart from a brief recovery in the 4th century, even before the withdrawal of Roman governors and garrisons. The rapidity and thoroughness of the collapse of urban life with the dissolution of centralized bureaucracy led historians like H. R. Loyn to suggest that Roman Britain's urbanization was somewhat 'exotic' and driven more by Roman military and administrative needs than economic virtue.

What characterized the 'polis model' of cities in Classical Antiquity, and how did it change in Late Antiquity?

Classical antiquity was defined by the 'polis model,' where cities were locally organized, self-governing bodies of citizens with written constitutions. In Late Antiquity, this model ended as local initiative was subsumed by imperial bureaucracy, and service in local government became an onerous duty. Urban dwellers fled to wealthy estates to escape taxes and other burdens, and many cities, especially in the West, could not be rebuilt after destruction.

What impact did the extreme weather events of 535–536 and the Plague of Justinian have on urban centers?

The extreme weather events of 535–536 and the subsequent Plague of Justinian, which spread through remaining trade networks, dealt a significant blow to commercial cities. This contributed to the decline of urban populations and the collapse of the traditional 'polis model' of city life, although the exact impact of the plague is still debated.

Who was primarily responsible for new public building projects in Late Antique cities, and what was the focus of these projects?

In Late Antique cities, almost all new public building projects were initiated directly or indirectly by emperors or imperial officials due to strained civic economies. The focus shifted from grand amenities like amphitheaters and temples to essential infrastructure such as walls, and the maintenance of baths and markets.

How did the Christianization of the Roman Empire influence public building and the use of basilicas?

With the rise of Christianity, many buildings associated with pagan cults were neglected. Instead, resources were directed towards building churches and supporting the poor. The Christian basilica, modeled after civic structures, became the primary public building, with the bishop occupying the apse, symbolizing Christ Pantocrator, the Ruler of All.

What architectural masterpiece was constructed by Justinian in Constantinople?

Justinian constructed the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, which stands as a staggering display of later Roman/Byzantine power and architectural taste, though it is not architecturally a basilica.

What marked the end of classical Roman art and the beginning of medieval art during Late Antiquity?

The stylistic changes characteristic of late-antique art, such as a transition from classical idealized realism to a more iconic and stylized approach, marked the end of classical Roman art and the beginnings of medieval art. This new style emphasized a spiritual reality rather than the physical beauty and movement of the body.

What artistic media gained prominence during Late Antiquity as painting and freestanding sculpture declined?

As painting and freestanding sculpture gradually fell from favor, there was a greater interest in mosaics, architecture, and relief sculpture during Late Antiquity, reflecting the changing artistic and commissioning communities.

How did the portrayal of the human body change in late-antique sculpture, as exemplified by 'The Four Tetrarchs'?

In late-antique sculpture, the classical portrayal of the human body, which emphasized individualism and naturalism, was replaced by a more rigid and frontal style. This is clearly seen in the porphyry 'Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs' (c. 300), where figures are stubby and lack the verism and idealism of earlier Roman and Greek art.

What artistic conventions became more prevalent in late-antique art?

In nearly all artistic media of Late Antiquity, simpler shapes were adopted, natural designs became abstracted, and the hierarchy of scale gained preeminence over classical models for representing spatial organization.

How did mosaics evolve during Late Antiquity, and what was their new artistic purpose?

During Late Antiquity, mosaics transitioned from being decorative elements on floors and wet walls to becoming a major vehicle for religious art in churches. The glittering surfaces of the tesserae illuminated basilicas, and the art form placed more emphasis on conveying a symbolic fact rather than rendering a realistic scene.

How did the depiction of Jesus Christ transform in Christian art during Late Antiquity?

The depiction of Jesus Christ underwent dramatic changes in Late Antique Christian art. Initially portrayed as an itinerant philosopher, teacher, or the 'Good Shepherd' (resembling Hermes), he was increasingly given Roman elite status, depicted in purple robes like emperors, holding an orb and scepter, possibly derived from the iconography of Jupiter or classical philosophers.

What forms of luxury arts were prominent in Late Antiquity?

Luxury arts in Late Antiquity included manuscript illumination on vellum and parchment, with examples like the 'Vergilius Vaticanus' and 'Vergilius Romanus' for classical texts, and Christian texts such as the 'Quedlinburg Itala fragment.' Carved ivory diptychs were also popular for both secular and religious subjects, and extravagant hoards of silver plate, like the Mildenhall and Hoxne Treasures, were common.

What shift occurred in literary languages during Late Antiquity?

Late Antiquity saw a decline in the use of classical Greek and Latin literature, accompanied by the rise of new literary cultures in languages such as Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Coptic.

What new literary style became preferred in Late Antiquity?

The preferred literary style in Late Antiquity shifted towards encyclopedic works characterized by a dense and allusive style. These often consisted of summaries of earlier works, such as anthologies and epitomes, frequently presented in elaborate allegorical forms, exemplified by works like Martianus Capella's 'De nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae' and Boethius's philosophical treatises.

Which historians managed to preserve the tradition of classical Hellenistic historiography in the Byzantine Empire?

Despite the changing literary landscape, authors like Ammianus Marcellinus in the 4th century and Procopius of Caesarea in the 6th century were able to keep the tradition of classical Hellenistic historiography alive within the Byzantine Empire.

What genre of literature became popular due to the political instability and military threats of Late Antiquity?

Due to the political instability and constant military threats of the era, treatises on war became a popular genre in Late Antiquity. The Byzantine military manuals, such as the 'Strategikon' attributed to Emperor Maurice in the 6th century, achieved great renown and influence.

Late Antiquity Wiki: Echoes of Empire: Unveiling the Transformations of Late Antiquity

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Defining the Era

A Bridge Between Worlds

Late Antiquity denotes the transitional period following classical antiquity and preceding the Early Middle Ages. Popularized in Anglophone scholarship by Peter Brown in 1971, this era is recognized as a vibrant cultural sphere spanning the Mediterranean, parts of Europe, and the Near East. It is characterized by immense political and religious transformations, laying the groundwork for subsequent historical developments.

Chronological Debates

The precise temporal boundaries of Late Antiquity remain a subject of academic discourse. Generally, its inception is placed in the second or third centuries CE, with its conclusion varying regionally from the sixth to the eighth centuries. This fluidity reflects the diverse pace of change across different geographical and cultural landscapes.

Beyond "Dark Ages"

The term "Late Antiquity" emerged to challenge the traditional "Dark Ages" narrative, which often depicted this period as one of unmitigated decline. Instead, scholars like Peter Brown emphasize it as a dynamic epoch of renewal and significant beginnings. This perspective highlights the continuities between the later Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages, particularly in the development of Christianized culture.

Epochal Shifts

Diocletian's Reforms & Division

The Roman Empire initiated profound social, cultural, and organizational changes under Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305 CE). He established the practice of dividing the empire into Eastern and Western halves, governed by multiple emperors simultaneously (the Tetrarchy). This division deepened the existing distinctions between the Greek East and the Latin West, setting the stage for divergent historical paths.

Empires in Conflict

This era saw the Sasanian Empire rise to prominence, replacing the Parthian Empire and initiating a new phase of intense Roman–Persian Wars. These prolonged conflicts significantly shaped the political and military landscapes of both empires, draining resources and influencing their internal developments.

Fall of the Western Empire

From the late 4th century, migrations of Germanic, Hunnic, and Slavic tribes severely disrupted Roman rule. This culminated in the Sacks of Rome by the Visigoths (410 CE) and Vandals (455 CE), leading to the eventual collapse of the Western Roman Empire by 476 CE. The vacuum was filled by "barbarian kingdoms," fostering a unique cultural fusion of Greco-Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions that would form the bedrock of European culture.

Justinian's Reconquests & Legacy

In the 6th century, Emperor Justinian the Great sought to restore Roman imperial rule in the West. His campaigns led to the fall of the Ostrogothic and Vandal Kingdoms, temporarily reincorporating much of Italy and North Africa into the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Justinian's reign also saw the construction of the magnificent Hagia Sophia and the first outbreak of the devastating Plague of Justinian.

Climate, Plague, and War

The mid-6th century was marked by extreme climate events, including the volcanic winter of 535–536 CE and the Late Antique Little Ice Age, alongside the catastrophic Plague of Justinian (541 CE). These events had profound, though still debated, impacts on social and political life. The subsequent Byzantine–Sasanian War (602–628 CE) further destabilized the region, inadvertently facilitating the emergence of Islam.

Spiritual Revolutions

The Rise of Monotheism

Late Antiquity was a crucible for the Abrahamic religions: Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and eventually, Islam. This period witnessed the transformation of religious landscapes, moving from the polytheistic Roman state religion to the widespread adoption of monotheistic faiths that would shape global civilization for millennia.

Christianization of the Empire

A pivotal moment was Emperor Constantine the Great's conversion in 312 CE, followed by the Edict of Milan (313 CE) which legalized Christianity. By the late 4th century, Emperor Theodosius I proclaimed Nicene Christianity as the state religion, fundamentally altering the classical Roman world. Constantine also played a crucial role in early Christian history, convening the Council of Nicaea and subsidizing church construction.

Monasticism's Influence

The 3rd century saw the birth of Christian monasticism, a significant development in Christian spirituality. Initially operating outside formal church authority, it rapidly gained success and geographical spread, influencing many aspects of Christian life through ascetic and semi-ascetic practices. Figures like John Chrysostom, Jerome, and Augustine integrated monastic attitudes into broader Christian thought.

The Emergence of Islam

The 7th century witnessed the rise of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, leading to rapid Arab conquests that overthrew the Sasanian Empire and wrested significant territories from the Eastern Roman Empire. The Islamic invasion, eventually halted at the Battle of Tours, marked a definitive end to Late Antiquity in many regions. Scholars debate whether Islam was an entirely new phenomenon or a product deeply rooted in the shared cultural horizon of the late antique world, noting similarities with other contemporary religions and philosophies.

Political Metamorphosis

Shifting Roman Governance

Late Antiquity brought a complete overhaul of the Roman Empire's political and social foundations. The traditional Roman citizen elite, once defined by public service and local town roles, found new security as servants of a distant emperor. The costly *cursus honorum* (public career path) became less appealing under increasing taxation pressures.

Imperial Centralization

With Constantine's establishment of Constantinople as the new capital in 330 CE, the imperial administration became highly centralized. Success in late antique society increasingly depended on access to this distant bureaucracy, rather than classical education or senatorial elections. The plain toga of the Republican senatorial class was replaced by elaborate silk court vestments, reflecting a new imperial iconography.

The Imperial Court

The emperor's cabinet of advisors evolved into the *consistorium*, signifying those who would stand in courtly attendance upon their seated emperor. This formalization contrasted sharply with the more informal circle of friends and advisors that characterized earlier imperial courts, highlighting the growing ceremonial and hierarchical nature of power.

Urban Transformations

Western Urban Decline

In the Western Roman Empire, cities experienced significant transformation and, in many cases, collapse. Archaeological evidence points to phenomena like the subdivision of grand public spaces and the encroachment of artisan shops onto thoroughfares, leading to the emergence of marketplace structures like the *souk*. Population in Rome plummeted from 800,000 to 30,000, largely due to the destruction of aqueducts during the Gothic War.

Eastern Urban Resilience

The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, centered around Constantinople, experienced urban continuity for a longer period. Cities in the Balkans, North Africa, and Asia Minor remained vibrant centers for political and religious discourse until the 7th century. Constantinople itself, supplied by the massive Aqueduct of Valens, grew to supersede Rome as the largest city in the Mediterranean basin.

New Urban Forms

Across Europe, populations often abandoned vulnerable cities for fortified high places, such as the Acrocorinth in Greece. In the western Mediterranean, new cities like the Visigothic "victory cities" (e.g., Reccopolis) were founded primarily for military purposes. The arrival of highly urbanized Islamic culture in Hispania (Iberian Peninsula) after 711 CE ensured the survival and flourishing of cities in that region into the Middle Ages.

Public Building Shifts

Strained economies meant that new public building projects in Late Antiquity were almost exclusively imperial initiatives. Cities prioritized defensive walls and essential services like baths and markets over amphitheaters, temples, and libraries. With the rise of Christianity, many pagan structures were neglected in favor of constructing churches, with the Christian basilica becoming the primary public building type, culminating in architectural marvels like Justinian's Hagia Sophia.

Artistic Evolution

From Classical to Medieval Aesthetics

Late antique art marks a pivotal transition from classical Roman art to the nascent styles of medieval art. This period saw a shift from the idealized realism of ancient Greek and Roman traditions to a more iconic, stylized approach. The emphasis moved from the physical beauty and movement of the body to hinting at a deeper spiritual reality behind the subjects.

Sculpture & Reliefs

Freestanding sculpture and painting gradually declined in favor of mosaics, architecture, and relief sculpture. The influence of soldier-emperors from the provinces introduced a more rigid and frontal portrayal of figures, as seen in the porphyry *Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs*. The Arch of Constantine vividly illustrates this stylistic contrast, juxtaposing older classical reliefs with newer, more abstracted forms.

The Brilliance of Mosaics

Mosaics ascended from mere floor decoration to become a primary medium for religious art in churches. The glittering surfaces of *tesserae* illuminated basilicas, conveying symbolic facts rather than realistic scenes. Within Christian art, the depiction of Jesus evolved from an itinerant philosopher or "Good Shepherd" to a figure of Roman elite status, often shrouded in imperial purple robes with orb and scepter, drawing from iconography of Jupiter or classical philosophers.

Luxury Arts & Manuscripts

Luxury arts flourished, including manuscript illumination on vellum and parchment, which emerged from the 5th century. Early examples include Roman literary classics, but Christian texts soon dominated, with the *Quedlinburg Itala fragment* being the oldest survivor. Carved ivory diptychs served both secular (imperial, consular) and religious purposes, sometimes reflecting pagan resistance to Christianity. Extravagant hoards of silver plate, such as the Mildenhall and Hoxne Treasures, were common, and jewelry often incorporated older, finely engraved gems due to a decline in gem-engraving skills.

Literary Landscapes

Linguistic & Stylistic Shifts

Late Antiquity witnessed a decline in the use of classical Greek and Latin in literature, giving way to the rise of literary cultures in Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Coptic. Literary style also evolved, favoring encyclopedic works, dense and allusive prose, and summaries of earlier texts, often presented with elaborate allegorical frameworks, as exemplified by Martianus Capella's *De nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae* and Boethius' *De consolatione philosophiae*.

Christian Literary Flourishing

The 4th and 5th centuries saw an explosion of Christian literature. Prominent Greek writers included Eusebius of Caesarea, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, and John Chrysostom. Latin Christian authors such as Ambrose of Milan, Jerome, and Augustine of Hippo produced foundational works. Despite these changes, classical Hellenistic historiography was maintained by figures like Ammianus Marcellinus and Procopius of Caesarea in the Byzantine Empire.

Treatises on War

Political instability and constant military threats made treatises on warfare a popular genre. Byzantine military manuals, notably the *Strategikon* attributed to Emperor Maurice (6th century), achieved significant renown and influence, reflecting the strategic concerns of the era.

The Hexaemeron Tradition

A distinct genre among Christian writers was the Hexaemeron, focusing on commentaries, homilies, and treatises dedicated to the exegesis of the Genesis creation narrative. Basil of Caesarea's Hexaemeron is a prime example, with Jacob of Serugh providing an early Syriac iteration, showcasing theological engagement with foundational texts.

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References

Glen W. Bowersock, "The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome", Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 49.8 (May 1996:29â43) p. 34.

Eusebius of Caesarea, Vita Constantini 3.5â6, 4.47

Smith, Rowland B.E. Julian's Gods: Religion and Philosophy in the Thought and Action of Julian

For a thesis on the complementary nature of Islam to the absolutist trend of Christian monarchy, see Garth Fowden, Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Princeton University Press 1993

Robert Hoyland, 'Early Islam as a Late Antique Religion', in: Scott F. Johnson ed., The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Oxford 2012) pp. 1053â1077.

Cf. the compendious list of ranks and liveries of imperial bureaucrats, the Notitia Dignitatum

See Bryan Ward-Perkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization, OUP 2005

Bibliography in Averil Cameron, The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, CE 395â600, 1993:152 note 1.

Procopius, Buildings of Justinian VI.6.15; Vandal Wars I.15.3ff, noted by Cameron 1993:158.

According to E. A Thompson, "The Barbarian Kingdoms in Gaul and Spain", Nottingham Mediaeval Studies, 7 (1963:4n11).

Robert L. Vann, "Byzantine street construction at Caesarea Maritima", in R.L. Hohlfelder, ed. City, Town and Countryside in the Early Byzantine Ear 1982:167â70.

M. Whittow, "Ruling the late Roman and early Byzantine city: a continuous history", Past and Present 129 (1990:3â29).

A full list of references for this article are available at the Late antiquity Wikipedia page

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Echoes of Empire

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining the Era ℹ️

🕰️ A Bridge Between Worlds

🗓️ Chronological Debates

💡 Beyond "Dark Ages"

Epochal Shifts 🏛️

👑 Diocletian's Reforms & Division

⚔️ Empires in Conflict

📉 Fall of the Western Empire

✨ Justinian's Reconquests & Legacy

🌪️ Climate, Plague, and War

Spiritual Revolutions ✝️

🙏 The Rise of Monotheism

🕊️ Christianization of the Empire

🧘 Monasticism's Influence

☪️ The Emergence of Islam

Political Metamorphosis 👑

🏛️ Shifting Roman Governance

bureaucracy Imperial Centralization

👥 The Imperial Court

Urban Transformations 🏘️

📉 Western Urban Decline

resilience Eastern Urban Resilience

🚧 New Urban Forms

🏗️ Public Building Shifts

Artistic Evolution 🎨

🎭 From Classical to Medieval Aesthetics

🗿 Sculpture & Reliefs

✨ The Brilliance of Mosaics

💎 Luxury Arts & Manuscripts

Literary Landscapes ✍️

📜 Linguistic & Stylistic Shifts

📚 Christian Literary Flourishing

🛡️ Treatises on War

📖 The Hexaemeron Tradition

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Defining the Era

A Bridge Between Worlds

Chronological Debates

Beyond "Dark Ages"

Epochal Shifts

Diocletian's Reforms & Division

Empires in Conflict

Fall of the Western Empire

Justinian's Reconquests & Legacy

Climate, Plague, and War

Spiritual Revolutions

The Rise of Monotheism

Christianization of the Empire

Monasticism's Influence

The Emergence of Islam

Political Metamorphosis

Shifting Roman Governance

Imperial Centralization

The Imperial Court

Urban Transformations

Western Urban Decline

Eastern Urban Resilience

New Urban Forms

Public Building Shifts

Artistic Evolution

From Classical to Medieval Aesthetics

Sculpture & Reliefs

The Brilliance of Mosaics

Luxury Arts & Manuscripts

Literary Landscapes

Linguistic & Stylistic Shifts

Christian Literary Flourishing

Treatises on War

The Hexaemeron Tradition

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice