What is lava, and what temperatures are typically associated with its eruption?

Lava is defined as molten or partially molten rock that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet or moon onto its surface. It is usually erupted at temperatures ranging from 800 to 1,200 degrees Celsius (1,470 to 2,190 degrees Fahrenheit).

How does lava continue to flow even after developing a solid crust?

Lava flows can continue to move because the solid crust that forms on the surface when lava is exposed to air acts as an insulator. This insulation helps keep the interior lava hot and fluid enough to continue flowing for significant distances.

What is the etymological origin of the word 'lava'?

The word 'lava' originates from Italian and is likely derived from the Latin word 'labes,' which means 'fall' or 'slide.' An early recorded use of the term in connection with volcanic extrusion was in an account of a Vesuvius eruption in 1737.

What are the primary components of solidified lava found on Earth's crust?

Solidified lava on Earth's crust is predominantly composed of silicate minerals, including feldspars, feldspathoids, olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, and quartz. In rare instances, nonsilicate lavas can form from local melting of non-silicate deposits or separation of magma into immiscible liquid phases.

How do petrologists typically express the composition of silicate lava?

Petrologists commonly express the composition of silicate lava in terms of the weight or molar mass fraction of the oxides of the major elements present, excluding oxygen. This provides a standardized way to describe the chemical makeup of the lava.

What role does silica play in the behavior of silicate lavas?

Silica plays a dominant role in determining the physical behavior of silicate lavas. Silicon ions bond strongly with oxygen, forming tetrahedral structures. When these structures link together, they create chains or clumps, increasing the lava's polymerization and thus its viscosity. Lavas with higher silica content are significantly more viscous.

What are the four main chemical types of silicate lavas, and what is the basis for this classification?

Silicate lavas are classified into four types based on their silica content: felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic. This classification is crucial because silica content is a primary factor influencing a lava's viscosity and other physical properties.

What characterizes felsic lavas, and what are their typical eruption styles?

Felsic or silicic lavas have a silica content greater than 63%, such as rhyolite and dacite. Due to their extremely high silica content, these lavas are highly viscous and usually erupt explosively, producing pyroclastic deposits. Occasionally, they can erupt effusively, forming lava spines, domes, or thick, short flows known as coulees, often resulting in block lava flows.

What is the viscosity range of felsic lavas compared to water?

Felsic lavas exhibit very high viscosity, ranging from 10^8 centipoise (cP) for hot rhyolite lava to 10^11 cP for cool rhyolite lava. For comparison, water has a viscosity of only about 1 cP, highlighting the significant difference in flow behavior.

What are intermediate lavas, and where are they commonly found?

Intermediate or andesitic lavas contain between 52% and 63% silica, with lower aluminum and higher magnesium and iron content than felsic lavas. They are typically found forming andesite domes and block lavas on steep composite volcanoes, such as those found in the Andes mountain range.

Describe the typical viscosity and temperature of intermediate lavas.

Intermediate lavas are generally hotter than felsic lavas, erupting in the range of 850 to 1,100 degrees Celsius (1,560 to 2,010 degrees Fahrenheit). Their viscosity is lower than felsic lavas due to their lower silica content, typically around 3.5 million cP at 1,200 degrees Celsius, which is comparable to the consistency of smooth peanut butter.

What defines mafic or basaltic lavas, and what are their eruption temperatures and viscosities?

Mafic or basaltic lavas are characterized by relatively high magnesium oxide and iron oxide content, with a silica content ranging from 45% to 52%. They generally erupt at higher temperatures, between 1,100 and 1,200 degrees Celsius (2,010 to 2,190 degrees Fahrenheit), and have lower viscosities, typically around 10^4 to 10^5 cP, similar to ketchup.

What types of volcanic structures are typically formed by mafic lavas, and why?

Mafic lavas tend to form low-profile shield volcanoes or extensive flood basalts. This is because their lower viscosity allows the lava to flow for long distances from the vent before solidifying.

What are ultramafic lavas, and why are they rare in modern times?

Ultramafic lavas, such as komatiite and boninite, are defined by having a silica content under 45% and very high magnesium oxide content (over 18% for komatiites). They erupted at extremely high temperatures, around 1,600 degrees Celsius, resulting in very low viscosity. Modern ultramafic lavas are rare because the Earth's mantle has cooled too much to produce such highly magnesian magmas.

What are alkaline lavas, and in what geological settings are they commonly found?

Alkaline lavas are silicate lavas with an elevated content of alkali metal oxides (sodium and potassium). They are often found in regions of continental rifting, areas overlying deeply subducted plates, or at intraplate hotspots. Their silica content can range from ultramafic to felsic.

Can you provide examples of non-silicate lavas?

Yes, examples of non-silicate lavas include carbonatite and natrocarbonatite lavas from the Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano in Tanzania, iron oxide lavas found in Sweden and Chile, and sulfur lava flows observed at the Lastarria volcano in Chile.

What are the typical temperatures of most molten lavas?

The temperature of most types of molten lava ranges from approximately 800 degrees Celsius (1,470 degrees Fahrenheit) for felsic lavas to 1,200 degrees Celsius (2,190 degrees Fahrenheit) for mafic lavas, depending on their chemical composition.

How does the cooling process of a lava flow occur, and what is the significance of the insulating crust?

Lava flows rapidly develop an insulating crust of solid rock due to radiative heat loss. This crust significantly slows down further cooling by conduction, allowing the interior lava to remain molten for extended periods, as evidenced by the slow cooling of the Kilauea Iki lava lake.

What geological features are formed as lava cools and shrinks?

As lava cools and shrinks, it fractures. Basalt flows commonly exhibit columnar jointing in their lower sections (colonnade) and irregular, downward-splaying fractures in their upper sections (entablature), features resulting from thermal contraction and cooling.

What are vesicles in lava, and how do they form?

Vesicles are small cavities formed by gases escaping from cooling lava. They can form at the boundaries of cooling lava flows (pipe-stem vesicles) or within the flow's interior as expelled liquids rise, sometimes forming vertical vesicle cylinders, which can lead to vesicular basalt and even geode formations like amethyst.

What is flow banding in lava, and in which types of lava is it common?

Flow banding refers to textural variations within solidified lava that reflect the flow patterns of the molten material. This phenomenon is particularly common in felsic lava flows.

How does the morphology of lava flows differ between fluid basaltic lava and viscous rhyolite lava?

Fluid basaltic lava flows tend to form flat, sheet-like bodies, whereas more viscous rhyolite lava flows typically form knobbly, blocky masses of rock due to their limited ability to spread out.

What is ʻaʻā lava, and what are its defining surface characteristics?

ʻaʻā (or aa) lava is a type of basaltic lava characterized by a rough, rubbly surface composed of broken lava blocks, often referred to as clinker. This texture makes it difficult to walk on.

What is pāhoehoe lava, and what are its characteristic surface features?

Pāhoehoe lava is another type of basaltic lava known for its smooth, billowy, undulating, or ropy surface. These features are created by the movement of fluid lava beneath a solidifying crust, often forming lobes and toes.

Under what conditions might pāhoehoe lava transition into ʻaʻā lava?

Pāhoehoe lava can transform into ʻaʻā lava as it loses heat and its viscosity increases. This transition can also be triggered by turbulence, such as when the flow encounters obstacles or steep slopes.

What are block lava flows, and how do they differ from ʻaʻā flows?

Block lava flows are characteristic of more viscous intermediate (andesitic) lavas. While they behave similarly to ʻaʻā flows by advancing over their own rubble, their surface is covered in smooth-sided, angular blocks rather than the sharp clinkers of ʻaʻā. Block lava flows are typically thicker and move more slowly.

How is pillow lava formed, and why is it common on Earth?

Pillow lava forms when lava emerges from an underwater vent or subglacial volcano, or when a lava flow enters the ocean. The rapid cooling by water creates a solid crust that cracks, allowing more molten lava to ooze out and form bulbous 'pillows.' Pillow lava is very common because most of Earth's surface is covered by water, and many volcanoes are located near or under bodies of water.

What are the primary landforms created by repeated lava eruptions?

Repeated lava eruptions build volcanoes, which can range from broad, gently sloping shield volcanoes formed by fluid basaltic lava to steeply-sided stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) built from alternating layers of ash and more viscous lava.

How can calderas form, and what features might be associated with them?

Calderas, which are large subsidence craters, can form in volcanoes when the magma chamber is significantly emptied by large explosive eruptions, causing the summit to collapse. They can also form through gradual magma subsidence, particularly in shield volcanoes. Associated features may include volcanic crater lakes and lava domes.

What are kīpukas, and how do they form in volcanic landscapes?

A kīpuka is an elevated area, such as a hill or ridge, that is surrounded by recent lava flows. These areas are isolated by the lava, appearing like islands within the barren lava field, often remaining forested while the surrounding land is covered in new lava.

What are lava tubes, and how do they form?

Lava tubes are tunnel-like conduits formed when the surface of a relatively fluid lava flow cools and solidifies, creating an insulating crust. Beneath this crust, the lava continues to flow, and when the flow ceases and the tube drains, an open tunnel remains within the solidified lava.

What is a lava lake, and where do permanent lava lakes typically exist?

A lava lake is formed when lava pools within a volcanic cone or caldera without erupting. Permanent lava lakes are rare but exist in a few locations globally, including Mount Erebus in Antarctica, Erta Ale in Ethiopia, Nyiragongo in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Ambrym in Vanuatu.

What is a lava delta, and under what volcanic conditions does it typically form?

A lava delta forms when sub-aerial lava flows enter a body of water. The lava cools and fragments upon contact with the water, gradually building out new land into the water body. These deltas are usually associated with large-scale, effusive basaltic volcanism.

What is a lava fountain, and what type of eruption is it associated with?

A lava fountain is a volcanic phenomenon where lava is ejected forcefully but non-explosively from a vent or fissure. These fountains can occur as pulses or continuous jets and are commonly associated with Hawaiian-type eruptions.

What are the primary hazards posed by lava flows?

Lava flows are primarily hazardous due to their destructive nature to property, although direct casualties are relatively rare because flows are often slow enough for escape. However, rapid flows, like that from Mount Nyiragongo in 1977, can be deadly. Other hazards include injuries from proximity, unstable ground on recent flows, dangerous chasms, sharp surfaces, and explosions caused by lava interacting with water.

Besides direct flow, what other volcanic phenomena can cause deaths related to lava?

Deaths attributed to volcanoes can also result from other factors associated with lava activity, such as volcanic ejecta, pyroclastic flows from collapsing lava domes, lahars, poisonous gases that precede lava flows, or explosions triggered when lava contacts water.

What specific hazards are associated with 'lava benches'?

Lava benches are areas of newly formed land created by lava flows entering the sea. These benches are unstable and can break off, falling into the ocean, posing a significant hazard.

What precautions are recommended when traversing areas with recent lava flows?

When crossing lava flows, it is recommended to wear rugged hiking boots and long pants to protect against the sharp, glass-like surfaces of ʻaʻā lava and potential hazards like chasms. Gloves are also advisable.

Is it possible to divert lava flows, and if so, how?

Diverting lava flows is extremely difficult but has been partially achieved in some instances, such as in Vestmannaeyjar, Iceland. Research is ongoing into the optimal design of barriers that can effectively divert lava flows.

Can you name some towns that have been destroyed or significantly damaged by lava flows?

Several towns have been destroyed or damaged by lava flows throughout history. Examples include Kalapana and Kapoho in Hawaii, Garachico in Tenerife, Cagsawa in the Philippines, and Goma in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Catania, Italy, was damaged in the 1669 Etna eruption.

What is tephra, and how can it pose a hazard to towns?

Tephra refers to lava fragments ejected during volcanic eruptions, including volcanic ash, lapilli, volcanic bombs, and volcanic blocks. These materials can bury entire towns, as seen in the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum by ash and pumice from Mount Vesuvius.

What is the typical viscosity of lava compared to common household substances?

The viscosity of most lava is comparable to that of ketchup, being roughly 10,000 to 100,000 times more viscous than water. More viscous lavas, like felsic ones, can be as much as a trillion times more viscous than water.

What is the difference between effusive and explosive volcanic eruptions in relation to lava?

Effusive eruptions are characterized by the outpouring of lava flows, typically associated with less viscous lavas. Explosive eruptions, conversely, produce fragmented material like volcanic ash and tephra, often resulting from highly viscous magmas that trap gases.

What is the significance of the silica content in determining lava viscosity?

Silica content is a primary factor in lava viscosity because silicon ions strongly bond with oxygen, forming complex structures that hinder flow. Lavas with higher silica content, like felsic lavas, are much more viscous than those with lower silica content, such as mafic lavas.

What are 'lava spines' and 'lava domes'?

Lava spines and lava domes are features formed by the effusive eruption of highly viscous felsic lavas. Spines are steep, pointed protrusions, while domes are rounded, mound-like structures that can grow as viscous magma is extruded.

What is columnar jointing in lava, and how does it form?

Columnar jointing is a pattern of fracture that develops in cooling lava flows as they shrink due to thermal contraction. This process typically breaks the solidified lava into polygonal columns, often with five or six sides, forming features like the Giant's Causeway.

What is the difference between 'entablature' and 'colonnade' in solidified lava flows?

In solidified basaltic lava flows, the 'entablature' refers to the irregular, downward-splaying fractures in the upper part of the flow, while the 'colonnade' refers to the lower part, which exhibits a very regular pattern of vertical columnar jointing.

What are 'lava tubes', and why are they significant geological features?

Lava tubes are natural tunnels formed within lava flows when the outer crust solidifies while molten lava continues to flow through the conduit. These tubes can transport lava for many kilometers and, when drained, leave behind significant cave-like structures.

What is a 'lava fountain', and what is the highest recorded height for such an event?

A lava fountain is a volcanic phenomenon where lava is ejected forcefully but non-explosively from a vent. The highest recorded lava fountain occurred at Mount Etna in Italy in 2013, reaching a stable height of around 2,500 meters (8,200 feet).

What is 'laze', and how is it formed?

Laze is an acidic haze formed when molten lava enters the cold ocean. The interaction creates hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, which are then carried by steam plumes, posing a potential hazard.

What is 'vog', and what is its origin?

Vog is a type of air pollution created when volcanic gases, primarily sulfur dioxide, react with the atmosphere. It is commonly associated with active volcanoes, particularly in Hawaii.

Lava Wiki: Molten Dynamics: An Exploration of Lava

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Etymology

Origin of the Term

The term "lava" originates from the Italian language, likely derived from the Latin word labes, signifying a "fall" or "slide." Its early geological application is attributed to Francesco Serao, who described the flow from Mount Vesuvius in 1737, drawing an analogy to water and mud flows.

Properties of Lava

Temperature and State

Lava is molten rock expelled onto a planet's surface, typically at temperatures ranging from 800 to 1,200 °C (1,470 to 2,190 °F). Upon eruption, it is highly fluid, but it quickly develops a solid, insulating crust as it cools through radiative heat loss. This crust slows further cooling, allowing the interior to remain molten for extended periods.

Viscosity and Flow

The viscosity of most lava is comparable to ketchup, being roughly 10,000 to 100,000 times more viscous than water. This property is primarily dictated by its chemical composition, particularly its silica content, as well as its temperature and shear rate. Higher silica content leads to greater polymerization and thus higher viscosity.

Composition

Silicate and Non-Silicate Types

Earth's crustal lavas are predominantly silicate minerals, characterized by varying proportions of silicon and oxygen, along with other elements like aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium. These compositions are classified based on silica content:

Felsic (Silicic): >63% SiO₂; highly viscous (e.g., rhyolite, dacite).
Intermediate (Andesitic): 52-63% SiO₂; moderately viscous (e.g., andesite).
Mafic (Basaltic): 45-52% SiO₂; low viscosity (e.g., basalt).
Ultramafic: <45% SiO₂; very low viscosity, rare today (e.g., komatiite).

Less common are non-silicate lavas, such as carbonatites, iron oxides, and sulfur flows, which have distinct chemical properties and eruptive behaviors.

The following table illustrates the weight percentages of major oxides in different lava compositions:

Examples of Lava Compositions (wt%)
Component	Nephelinite	Tholeiitic Picrite	Tholeiitic Basalt	Andesite	Rhyolite
SiO₂	39.7	46.4	53.8	60.0	73.2
TiO₂	2.8	2.0	2.0	1.0	0.2
Al₂O₃	11.4	8.5	13.9	16.0	14.0
Fe₂O₃	5.3	2.5	2.6	1.9	0.6
FeO	8.2	9.8	9.3	6.2	1.7
MnO	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.0
MgO	12.1	20.8	4.1	3.9	0.4
CaO	12.8	7.4	7.9	5.9	1.3
Na₂O	3.8	1.6	3.0	3.9	3.9
K₂O	1.2	0.3	1.5	0.9	4.1
P₂O₅	0.9	0.2	0.4	0.2	0.0

Rheology

Flow Behavior

Lava rheology, or its flow characteristics, is governed by its viscosity, which is influenced by composition, temperature, and shear rate. Most lavas behave as Bingham fluids, exhibiting a yield stress that must be overcome before flow initiates. The presence of crystals within the melt further complicates this behavior, contributing to thixotropic properties (shear-thinning) and hindering crystal settling, thus maintaining a relatively uniform flow texture.

Gas Exsolution and Vesicles

As lava cools and crystallizes, dissolved gases exsolve, forming vesicles. These gas bubbles are often concentrated at the upper and lower boundaries of cooling flows, creating textures like pipe-stem vesicles. In the still-fluid center of cooling flows, vertical vesicle cylinders can form as gases migrate upwards, sometimes creating vesicular basalt layers capped by gas cavities.

Morphology

Surface Textures

Lava flows exhibit diverse surface morphologies determined by their viscosity and cooling rates. Common types include:

'A'a: Characterized by a rough, rubbly surface of broken lava blocks (clinker).
Pāhoehoe: Features a smooth, undulating, or ropy surface, formed by the movement of fluid lava under a solidifying crust.
Block Lava: Typical of more viscous intermediate lavas, with smooth-sided, angular fragments.
Pillow Lava: Forms when lava erupts underwater, creating rounded, pillow-like shapes due to rapid cooling.

Underwater Eruptions

When lava emerges from submarine vents or flows into the ocean, it rapidly cools upon contact with water. This rapid quenching forms distinctive "pillow" structures. The outer surface solidifies quickly, cracking to allow more molten lava to extrude, creating a characteristic stacked or globular appearance. Pillow lavas are extremely common due to the prevalence of water bodies on Earth's surface.

Landforms

Volcanic Structures

Repeated lava flows and eruptions build significant geological features:

Volcanoes: Range from broad shield volcanoes (basaltic lava) to steep stratovolcanoes (intermediate/felsic lava).
Calderas: Large subsidence craters formed after major eruptions empty magma chambers.
Cinder/Spatter Cones: Smaller features formed around vents from ejected volcanic fragments.

Flow-Related Features

Lava flows create varied landscapes:

Kīpukas: Elevated areas (hills, ridges) isolated by surrounding lava flows, often appearing as islands in barren fields.
Lava Domes/Coulees: Formed by viscous felsic lava extruding slowly, creating rounded mounds or short, thick flows.
Lava Tubes: Tunnels formed by flowing lava that cools on the surface, insulating the interior molten rock.
Lava Lakes: Rare accumulations of molten lava within volcanic craters or calderas.
Lava Deltas: Form where lava flows enter standing bodies of water, building new land.
Lava Fountains: Non-explosive ejection of lava from vents, creating spectacular jets.

Hazards

Destructive Power

Lava flows are inherently destructive to property, capable of engulfing and destroying structures in their path. While direct casualties from lava flows are relatively rare due to their typically slow movement, they can occur if escape routes are cut off or if flows advance unexpectedly rapidly, as seen in the 1977 Nyiragongo eruption.

Indirect Dangers

Volcanic activity associated with lava can pose other significant hazards. These include volcanic ejecta (ash, lapilli, bombs), pyroclastic flows from collapsing domes, lahars (volcanic mudflows), and poisonous gases that can travel ahead of lava flows. Contact with water can also trigger steam explosions. Furthermore, unstable "lava benches" formed where lava enters the sea can collapse, posing a maritime hazard.

Impact on Settlements

Towns Engulfed by Lava

Throughout history, numerous settlements have been destroyed or significantly damaged by lava flows and associated volcanic activity. These events underscore the profound impact of volcanic processes on human habitation.

Nisga'a villages (Lax Ksiluux, Wii Lax K'abit), British Columbia, Canada (1700s)
Garachico, Tenerife (1706 eruption)
Cagsawa, Philippines (1814 Mayon Volcano eruption)
Koae and Kapoho, Hawaii (1960 Kīlauea eruption)
Kalapana, Hawaii (1990 Kīlauea eruption)
Kapoho (Vacationland Hawaii subdivision), Hawaii (2018 Kīlauea eruption)

Towns Damaged by Lava

Many other towns have suffered damage, requiring rebuilding or abandonment, highlighting the persistent threat posed by active volcanism.

Catania, Italy (1669 Etna eruption)
Sale'aula, Samoa (1905-1911 Mt Matavanu eruptions)
Mascali, Italy (1928 Mount Etna eruption)
Parícutin village and San Juan Parangaricutiro, Mexico (1943-1952 Parícutin volcano)
Heimaey, Iceland (1973 Eldfell eruption)
Piton Sainte-Rose, Réunion (1977 eruption)
Royal Gardens, Hawaii (1986-1987 Kīlauea eruption)
Goma, Democratic Republic of Congo (2002 Nyiragongo eruption)
Los Llanos de Aridane (Todoque), El Paso (El Paraíso), La Palma (2021 Cumbre Vieja eruption)

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References

Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983, pp. 26â17.

Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983, pp. 22â23.

Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983, pp. 23, 26â29.

Lava Flows and Their Effects USGS

Bundschuh, J. and Alvarado, G. E (editors) (2007) Central America: Geology, Resources and Hazards, volume 1, p. 56, London, Taylor and Francis

A full list of references for this article are available at the Lava Wikipedia page

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This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not geological or safety advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional geological consultation, hazard assessment, or safety planning. Always refer to official geological surveys and consult with qualified professionals for specific environmental or safety needs. Never disregard professional advice because of something you have read on this website.

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Molten Dynamics

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Etymology 📜

🗣️ Origin of the Term

Properties of Lava 🔬

🌡️ Temperature and State

💧 Viscosity and Flow

Composition 🧪

💎 Silicate and Non-Silicate Types

Rheology 〰️

⚖️ Flow Behavior

💨 Gas Exsolution and Vesicles

Morphology 🧊

🔥 Surface Textures

🌊 Underwater Eruptions

Landforms ⛰️

🌋 Volcanic Structures

🏞️ Flow-Related Features

Hazards ⚠️

🔥 Destructive Power

💨 Indirect Dangers

Impact on Settlements 🏘️

विनाश Towns Engulfed by Lava

🩹 Towns Damaged by Lava

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Etymology

Origin of the Term

Properties of Lava

Temperature and State

Viscosity and Flow

Composition

Silicate and Non-Silicate Types

Rheology

Flow Behavior

Gas Exsolution and Vesicles

Morphology

Surface Textures

Underwater Eruptions

Landforms

Volcanic Structures

Flow-Related Features

Hazards

Destructive Power

Indirect Dangers

Impact on Settlements

Towns Engulfed by Lava

Towns Damaged by Lava

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice