Who was Lev Shestov, and what were his primary philosophical contributions?

Lev Isaakovich Shestov, born Yeguda Lev Shvartsman, was a Russian existentialist and religious philosopher. He is primarily known for his critiques of philosophical rationalism and positivism, arguing that reason and metaphysics are incapable of conclusively establishing truth about ultimate problems, such as the nature of God or existence. His work is often associated with the label "anti-philosophy."

What was Lev Shestov's birth name and his birth and death dates and locations?

Lev Shestov was born Yeguda Lev Shvartsman on January 31, 1866, in Kiev, Russian Empire (now Kyiv, Ukraine). He died on November 19, 1938, in Paris, France.

What were Lev Shestov's main philosophical interests and the era he belonged to?

Shestov's main philosophical interests included theology and nihilism. He is associated with 19th-century philosophy and Russian philosophy, as well as Western philosophy, and his work is categorized under Christian existentialism.

What was Lev Shestov's family background and his early academic pursuits?

Shestov was born into a Jewish family and was a cousin of Nicholas Pritzker, who later became the patriarch of the prominent Pritzker family known for its influence in business and politics. He studied law and mathematics at Moscow State University but faced clashes with authority that disrupted his formal education.

Why was Lev Shestov's dissertation rejected, and what academic career path did this prevent?

His dissertation was rejected by the St. Vladimir's Imperial University of Kiev because it expressed revolutionary tendencies. This rejection prevented him from obtaining a doctor of law degree.

With which notable Russian intellectuals and artists was Shestov associated in the late 19th century?

In 1898, Shestov became part of a circle of prominent Russian intellectuals and artists that included Nikolai Berdyaev, Sergei Diaghilev, Dmitri Merezhkovsky, and Vasily Rozanov, contributing articles to a journal established by this group.

What were the key themes and influences of Shestov's early major philosophical works?

Shestov's early works, such as "Good in the Teaching of Tolstoy and Nietzsche" (1899) and "The Philosophy of Tragedy, Dostoevsky and Nietzsche" (1903), explored the philosophies of Leo Tolstoy, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Fyodor Dostoevsky, authors who profoundly impacted his thought and established his reputation as an original thinker.

How did D. H. Lawrence characterize Lev Shestov's core philosophical idea?

D. H. Lawrence summarized Shestov's philosophy by stating his central cry was "Everything is possible." Lawrence interpreted this not as nihilism, but as a liberation of the human psyche from old constraints, asserting that the soul truly believes in itself and nothing else.

What were some of the criticisms Shestov faced from his Russian friends regarding his philosophy?

Many of Shestov's closest Russian friends viewed his work as a renunciation of reason and metaphysics, and some even considered it an espousal of nihilism.

What geographical moves did Shestov make in the early 20th century, and what personal event marked his return to Moscow?

Shestov moved to Freiburg, Germany, in 1908, and then to Coppet, Switzerland, in 1910, where he worked prolifically. He returned to Moscow in 1915, the same year his son Sergei died in combat against the Germans.

How did the Bolshevik Revolution impact Shestov's ability to publish his work?

Following the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917, Shestov faced pressure to write a defense of Marxist doctrine as an introduction to his new work, "Potestas Clavium," to get it published. He refused this demand.

Where did Shestov emigrate after leaving Russia, and who did he befriend and influence there?

Shestov emigrated to France, where he became a popular figure. In Paris, he befriended and significantly influenced thinkers like Georges Bataille, as well as Benjamin Fondane and Rachel Bespaloff.

What was Shestov's engagement with Edmund Husserl, and what philosophical discovery did it lead to?

Shestov met Edmund Husserl in 1926 and maintained a cordial relationship despite their philosophical differences. A later meeting in 1929, encouraged by Husserl, led Shestov to study Søren Kierkegaard, with whom he found great philosophical similarities.

How did Shestov build upon Søren Kierkegaard's philosophical ideas?

Shestov discovered that his philosophy shared similarities with Kierkegaard's, particularly in rejecting idealism and believing that ultimate knowledge could be gained through ungrounded subjective thought rather than objective reason. Shestov felt Kierkegaard did not pursue these ideas far enough and continued this line of thought in his own work.

What is the central argument of Shestov's magnum opus, "Athens and Jerusalem"?

In "Athens and Jerusalem," Shestov examines the dichotomy between freedom and reason, advocating for the rejection of reason in philosophy. He argues that science relies on empirical observation, while philosophy must engage with concepts like freedom, God, and immortality, which are beyond scientific resolution.

What did Shestov consider the "penultimate word" and what lies beyond it?

Shestov identified despair, characterized by the loss of certainties, freedom, and the meaning of life, as the "penultimate word." He believed that beyond despair and philosophy lies "faith," a way of thinking that embraces the possibility that "everything is possible" and signifies a god-given freedom without boundaries.

How did Shestov interpret the Christian concepts of incarnation and resurrection?

As a Jewish philosopher, Shestov saw the incarnation and resurrection of Jesus Christ as a demonstration that life's purpose is not mystical surrender but ascetical struggle. He viewed these events as a victory over necessity, showing that enduring hardship is worthwhile to avoid remaining in a state of passive "bliss."

What is the final message of Lev Shestov's "Athens and Jerusalem" regarding the nature of philosophy?

The concluding message of "Athens and Jerusalem" is that philosophy is not about contemplation or "thinking over" (Besinnen), but rather about struggle. Shestov asserted that this struggle is unending and that the kingdom of God is attained through "violence," echoing a biblical sentiment.

Who were some of the prominent figures influenced by Lev Shestov's work?

Lev Shestov significantly influenced thinkers such as Georges Bataille, Albert Camus, Benjamin Fondane, Paul Celan, Emil Cioran, Gilles Deleuze, and Isaiah Berlin, among others.

Why is Lev Shestov relatively unknown in the English-speaking world today?

Shestov's limited recognition in the English-speaking world is attributed to his works not being readily available, the unfashionable nature of his themes, and the initially unsettling combination of his quasi-nihilistic stance and religious outlook.

How did Emil Cioran describe Shestov's impact on his own philosophical development?

Emil Cioran referred to Shestov as the philosopher of his generation that struggled with spiritual realization but remained nostalgic for it. Cioran believed Shestov was correct in asserting that true problems often escaped the attention of other philosophers, who tended to obscure life's real torments.

In which of Gilles Deleuze's works is Shestov referred to?

Gilles Deleuze referred to Lev Shestov in his works, including "Nietzsche and Philosophy" and "Difference and Repetition," indicating Shestov's influence on his thought.

What is the significance of Leo Strauss's work "Jerusalem and Athens" in relation to Shestov's philosophy?

Leo Strauss's book "Jerusalem and Athens" was written, in part, as a direct response to Lev Shestov's work of the same title, "Athens and Jerusalem," indicating a significant intellectual dialogue between the two thinkers.

What specific aspect of Shestov's thought did Liza Knapp highlight in her book "The Annihilation of Inertia"?

Liza Knapp's book, "The Annihilation of Inertia: Dostoevsky and Metaphysics," evaluated Dostoevsky's struggle against the self-evident "wall" of rationalism and referred to Shestov on several occasions, finding solace in Shestov's battle against the rational and self-evident.

How did Shestov's radical views influence Georges Bataille?

According to Michael Richardson, Shestov was an early influence on Georges Bataille, introducing him to Nietzsche's work. Shestov's radical theological views and his interest in extreme human behavior likely shaped Bataille's own philosophical and literary explorations.

What was the writing date for Lev Shestov's major work "All Things Are Possible"?

Lev Shestov's work "All Things Are Possible," also known as "Apotheosis of Groundlessness," was written in 1905.

What is the English title and writing date for Shestov's magnum opus?

Lev Shestov's magnum opus is titled "Athens and Jerusalem," and it was written between 1930 and 1937.

What does Shestov mean by critiquing "rationalism" and "scientism"?

Shestov critiques rationalism and scientism not by opposing reason or science in general, but by opposing the tendency to deify reason itself, treating it as an omniscient, omnipotent God that is eternally true and justified. He believed this tendency subordinates life to abstract, tyrannical necessities.

According to Shestov, what is the relationship between faith and reason in the pursuit of truth?

Shestov argued that while reason operates within the limits of necessity and verifiability, faith is a dimension of thought that abandons itself fearlessly to the Creator. He believed that true understanding of ultimate realities, like God, requires moving beyond reason's constraints to this source of truth.

What is Shestov's view on the comprehensibility of life through philosophical systems?

Shestov maintained that life, in its ultimate analysis, is not comprehensible through logical or rational inquiry. He believed that no metaphysical speculation can conclusively solve life's mysteries and that his philosophy is problem-generating, emphasizing the enigmatic qualities of life rather than providing systematic solutions.

What is the core of Shestov's critique of Western philosophy's approach to reason?

Shestov's core critique of Western philosophy is that it has used reason to place humans and God in a subservient position to immutable, tyrannical "necessities." He believed this deification of reason stems from a fear of a capricious God, leading philosophers to favor the unchanging and "dead" over the dynamic and living aspects of existence.

What did Shestov consider the role of "necessity" in philosophical thought?

Shestov viewed "necessity" as a way of thinking, and a real aspect of the world, that subordinates life to abstract ideas, generalizations, and immutable laws. He saw this as a force that kills the uniqueness and vitality of reality, and he sought to find philosophical sources beyond this necessity.

How did Shestov's philosophy relate to the concept of "everything is possible"?

Shestov embraced the idea that "everything is possible," which he saw as the opposite of necessity. This concept, linked to Dostoevsky, represented a form of faith that arises from deep doubt, affirming a god-given freedom without boundaries and suggesting that possibilities exist beyond the limits of rational understanding.

What is the significance of the phrase "the penultimate word" in Shestov's philosophy?

In Shestov's philosophy, "the penultimate word" refers to the experience of despair, which involves the loss of life's meaning and certainties. He posited that this despair is not the final state, but a necessary precursor to a deeper form of faith and understanding that lies beyond conventional philosophical discourse.

What was Shestov's perspective on the relationship between science and philosophy?

Shestov argued that the scientific method, focused on empirical observation, has made philosophy and science irreconcilable. He believed that while science deals with observable facts, philosophy must concern itself with issues like freedom, God, and immortality, which cannot be resolved through scientific means.

What specific works by Shestov are listed as his main contributions?

Shestov's main works include "The Good in the Teaching of Tolstoy and Nietzsche" (1899), "The Philosophy of Tragedy, Dostoevsky and Nietzsche" (1903), "All Things are Possible" (1905), "By Faith Alone" (written 1910-14), "Potestas Clavium" (1919), "In Job's Balances" (1923–29), "Kierkegaard and the Existential Philosophy" (1933–34), and his magnum opus "Athens and Jerusalem" (1930–37).

What is the meaning of Shestov's statement that "philosophy is not Besinnen but struggle"?

This statement, from the conclusion of "Athens and Jerusalem," means that philosophy is not merely contemplation or reflection but an active, ongoing struggle. Shestov believed this struggle is essential for attaining spiritual understanding and the kingdom of God.

What was Shestov's connection to the Pritzker family?

Lev Shestov was a cousin of Nicholas Pritzker, who later emigrated to Chicago and became the patriarch of the Pritzker family, renowned for its significant influence in business and politics.

How did Shestov's philosophical approach differ from traditional systematic philosophy?

Unlike traditional systematic philosophy, Shestov's work offered no systematic unity and was often fragmentary. He employed an aphoristic and "web-like" style, focusing on generating philosophical problems and emphasizing the enigmatic qualities of life rather than providing definitive, rational explanations.

What role did Shestov see for faith in overcoming despair?

Shestov saw faith not as a mere belief or certainty, but as a distinct way of thinking that emerges from profound doubt and insecurity. He proposed faith as a source of truth that transcends the constraints of reason, allowing one to embrace the possibility that "everything is possible" and to find God beyond rational limitations.

What was Shestov's stance on the limits of reason in understanding ultimate truths?

Shestov contended that reason is incapable of conclusively establishing truth about ultimate problems, such as the nature of God or existence. He believed that reason subordinates life to abstract necessities and that true philosophical inquiry must venture beyond its limitations, into the realm of faith and possibility.

What is the significance of Shestov's critique of "total unity" in "Athens and Jerusalem"?

In "Athens and Jerusalem," Shestov criticized the concept of "total unity" as an absolutely false idea. He questioned why God, who is not limited by time or space, should be expected to adhere to the same respect for order as human reason, suggesting that this pursuit of unity by reason limits the understanding of the living God.

What did Shestov mean by the "penultimate word" and the "last word" in his philosophy?

The "penultimate word" for Shestov was despair, representing the loss of life's meaning and certainties. The "last word," however, could not be articulated in human language or captured by theory, pointing towards a realm beyond despair and philosophy, which he associated with faith and the affirmation that "everything is possible."

How did Shestov's emigration to France impact his philosophical career?

Upon emigrating to France, Shestov found a receptive audience for his work, where his originality was quickly recognized, and he became a popular figure. This period allowed him to engage with French intellectual circles and contribute to prestigious philosophy journals, solidifying his international reputation.

What specific philosophical ideas of Shestov influenced Gilles Deleuze?

Gilles Deleuze referred to Lev Shestov in his works, including "Nietzsche and Philosophy" and "Difference and Repetition," indicating Shestov's influence on his thought.

What is the nature of Shestov's "anti-philosophy"?

Shestov's "anti-philosophy" is characterized by its rejection of systematic unity and theoretical explanations for philosophical problems. Instead, it embraces a fragmentary, aphoristic style that emphasizes life's enigmatic qualities and the limitations of reason in grasping ultimate truths, often generating more questions than answers.

What was Shestov's perspective on the "law of non-contradiction" in relation to God?

Shestov criticized philosophers like Aristotle, Spinoza, Leibniz, Kant, and Hegel for believing in eternal, rational laws, such as the law of non-contradiction, which they thought could constrain even God by logical necessity. Shestov countered that God, representing the absolute, is not bound by such rational constraints.

How did Shestov's critique of reason relate to his understanding of human experience?

Shestov argued that reason, by imposing "necessities" and abstract laws, can lead to a sense of aloneness and suffering, as philosophical systems fail to address the unique, lived experience of individuals. He believed that true reality and understanding begin beyond the limits of what reason can logically comprehend.

What is the significance of Shestov's quote, "...we need to think that only one assertion has or can have any objective reality: that nothing on earth is impossible"?

This quote from Shestov underscores his belief that the assertion of impossibility is a limiting truth imposed by reason. He advocated for resisting such limitations and embracing the idea that "nothing on earth is impossible," which aligns with his philosophy of faith and freedom beyond rational necessity.

Lev Shestov Wiki: Lev Shestov: The Unyielding Philosopher of the Impossible

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

When you are ready...
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮

What is Lev Shestov?

Russian Existentialist

Lev Isaakovich Shestov, born Yeguda Lev Shvartsman, was a seminal Russian existentialist and religious philosopher. He is critically acclaimed for his profound critiques of philosophical rationalism and positivism, advocating for a philosophical approach that transcends the perceived limitations of reason and metaphysics. Shestov posited that these conventional modes of inquiry are ultimately incapable of definitively grasping ultimate truths concerning existence and the divine.

The Critique of Reason

Central to Shestov's thought is a rigorous challenge to the supremacy of reason. He argued that Western philosophy, by deifying reason and abstract principles, imposes a tyrannical "Necessity" that constrains even the divine. This perspective, often labeled as "anti-philosophy," suggests that true philosophical inquiry must begin where reason fails, embracing the realm of possibility and freedom beyond logical constraints.

A Life of Intellectual Pursuit

Born in Kiev in 1866 into a Jewish family, Shestov's intellectual journey was marked by clashes with authority and a relentless pursuit of truth. After early studies in law and mathematics, he became a prominent figure in Russian intellectual circles, deeply engaging with thinkers like Tolstoy, Nietzsche, and Dostoevsky. Exiled from Soviet Russia, he found refuge and intellectual community in France, influencing prominent figures of 20th-century thought before his death in Paris in 1938.

The Journey of a Philosopher

Early Life and Education

Born Yeguda Lev Shvartsman in Kiev, Russian Empire, on January 31, 1866, Shestov hailed from a Jewish family. His early academic path was fraught with conflict, leading him to study law and mathematics at Moscow State University. However, a dispute with university authorities necessitated his return to Kiev, where he completed his studies. His doctoral dissertation was notably rejected due to its perceived revolutionary tendencies, preventing his formal entry into legal academia.

Intellectual Circles and Early Works

In 1898, Shestov became associated with a vibrant circle of Russian intellectuals and artists, including Nikolai Berdyaev and Sergei Diaghilev. Contributing to their journal, he began to articulate his philosophical ideas. His early major works, such as *The Good in the Teaching of Tolstoy and Nietzsche* and *The Philosophy of Tragedy*, established his reputation as an original thinker, profoundly influenced by these two towering figures.

Exile and French Intellectualism

Following the Bolshevik Revolution, Shestov emigrated to France in 1921. In Paris, his intellectual contributions were quickly recognized. He formed significant friendships and intellectual dialogues with figures like Georges Bataille and Benjamin Fondane. He lectured at the Sorbonne and engaged in correspondence with Edmund Husserl, despite their divergent philosophical orientations. This period marked the development of his magnum opus, *Athens and Jerusalem*.

The Core of Shestov's Thought

The Tyranny of Necessity

Shestov contended that much of Western philosophy has erred by elevating "Necessity"—the dominion of immutable, rational laws—to an absolute status. This adherence to logical consistency and predictable order, he argued, ultimately subordinates life itself to abstract principles, thereby stifling genuine human experience and the possibility of encountering the divine. He saw this as a fearful attempt to control an unpredictable God by imposing rational structures.

Despair as the Penultimate Word

Shestov's philosophical starting point is often the experience of despair—the profound loss of certainty, meaning, and freedom that arises from confronting this "Necessity." However, he famously declared despair to be only the "penultimate word." The ultimate word, he suggested, lies beyond language and theory, in the realm of faith, which embraces the radical notion that "everything is possible."

Faith, for Shestov, is not a passive belief or a new certainty, but an active, courageous stance taken amidst profound doubt and insecurity. It is the realization that the opposite of Necessity is not mere chance, but boundless possibility, and that a God who is not limited by reason exists. This perspective is exemplified in his interpretation of the Christian resurrection as a triumph over the constraints of necessity.

Athens and Jerusalem

In his magnum opus, *Athens and Jerusalem*, Shestov articulates the fundamental dichotomy between two paths of thought: Athens representing philosophical reason, logic, and universal truths, and Jerusalem symbolizing faith, revelation, and the unique, often paradoxical, encounter with the divine. He argued that true philosophical understanding requires a movement away from the rationalism of Athens towards the radical faith of Jerusalem, where the "living God" transcends all rational limitations.

Echoes Through Thought

Shaping 20th-Century Thinkers

Shestov's radical philosophical stance exerted a significant influence on a generation of thinkers across Europe. His emphasis on the limits of reason, the importance of individual experience, and the confrontation with existential despair resonated deeply with existentialist and post-structuralist traditions.

Key Figures Influenced

Among the prominent intellectuals who engaged with and were shaped by Shestov's philosophy are:

Albert Camus: Who discussed Shestov in *The Myth of Sisyphus*.
Georges Bataille: A close friend and intellectual companion.
Emil Cioran: Who referred to Shestov as the philosopher of his generation.
Gilles Deleuze: Who referenced Shestov in his works on Nietzsche and difference.
Isaiah Berlin: Who praised Shestov as a "totally decent, open-hearted human being."
D. H. Lawrence: Who found Shestov's cry of "everything is possible" to be a liberation of the human psyche.

Seminal Writings

Key Publications

Shestov's philosophical output is characterized by its depth and challenging nature. His most significant works, often characterized by aphoristic style and direct engagement with existential dilemmas, include:

*The Good in the Teaching of Tolstoy and Nietzsche* (1899)
*The Philosophy of Tragedy, Dostoevsky and Nietzsche* (1903)
*All Things are Possible* (also known as *Apotheosis of Groundlessness*) (1905)
*In Job's Balances* (1923–29)
*Athens and Jerusalem* (1930–37)

These works continue to be studied for their profound insights into the human condition and the nature of philosophical inquiry.

Teacher's Corner

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

Edit and Print Materials from this study in the wiki2web studio

Click here to open the "Lev Shestov" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit

Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Learn about lev_shestov while playing the wiki2web Clarity Challenge game.

Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!

Play now

Explore More Topics

Discover other topics to study!

cc sabathia

fixer upper tv series

history of the people's republic of china 1976–1989

bulgaria during world war ii

assam cricket association stadium guwahati

georgios printezis

carroll dale

international mineralogical association

bestseller

plant cell

References

'Introduction' to 'All Things Are Possible' by Prof. Edouard d'Araille (2001/LTP Ed.).

A full list of references for this article are available at the Lev Shestov Wikipedia page

Feedback & Support

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional philosophical advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for in-depth study, critical analysis, or consultation with qualified academic philosophers. Always refer to primary texts and scholarly interpretations for a comprehensive understanding of Lev Shestov's complex thought.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

Lev Shestov: The Unyielding Philosopher of the Impossible

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

What is Lev Shestov? 💡

🇷🇺 Russian Existentialist

🚫 The Critique of Reason

⏳ A Life of Intellectual Pursuit

The Journey of a Philosopher ⏳

🎓 Early Life and Education

🤝 Intellectual Circles and Early Works

🇫🇷 Exile and French Intellectualism

The Core of Shestov's Thought 🧠

🚫 The Tyranny of Necessity

😔 Despair as the Penultimate Word

🏛️ Athens and Jerusalem

Echoes Through Thought 🌟

🌍 Shaping 20th-Century Thinkers

✍️ Key Figures Influenced

Seminal Writings 📚

📖 Key Publications

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is Lev Shestov?

Russian Existentialist

The Critique of Reason

A Life of Intellectual Pursuit

The Journey of a Philosopher

Early Life and Education

Intellectual Circles and Early Works

Exile and French Intellectualism

The Core of Shestov's Thought

The Tyranny of Necessity

Despair as the Penultimate Word

Athens and Jerusalem

Echoes Through Thought

Shaping 20th-Century Thinkers

Key Figures Influenced

Seminal Writings

Key Publications

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice