Celestial Majesty: Unveiling Luna, Roman Goddess of the Moon
Journey through the ancient Roman cosmos to explore the divine embodiment of the Moon, her cult, and her enduring legacy.
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The Lunar Deity
Embodiment of the Moon
In Sabine and ancient Roman religion and myth, Luna (Latin: Lลซna, meaning 'Moon') stands as the divine embodiment of the Moon itself. She is frequently conceptualized as the feminine counterpart to the Sun god, Sol, forming a celestial pair that governs the day and night sky. Her significance extends beyond a singular identity, as she is also recognized as an integral aspect of the Roman triple goddess, known as the diva triformis, alongside Diana and either Proserpina or Hecate.
A Distinct or Shared Identity?
While Luna is often revered as a distinct goddess, her name can also function as an epithet, specializing other goddesses as lunar deities. Both Diana, the goddess of the hunt and wilderness, and Juno, the queen of the gods, were at times identified with the moon and thus could be referred to with lunar attributes. This fluidity in identity highlights the interconnectedness of Roman divine figures and the multifaceted nature of lunar worship.
Among the Principal Gods
The esteemed Roman scholar Varro categorized Luna among the visible gods, distinguishing her from invisible deities such as Neptune and deified mortals like Hercules. Furthermore, he included Luna in his list of the twenty principal gods of Rome, known as the di selecti. In this specific enumeration, Luna is presented as a distinct entity, separate from both Diana and Juno, underscoring her individual importance within the Roman pantheon.
Divine Attributes & Connections
Iconic Symbols
In Roman art, Luna is consistently identified by her distinctive attributes: the crescent moon and the two-yoke chariot, known as a biga. These symbols not only represent her celestial domain but also her dynamic presence in the night sky. The poet Horace, in his Carmen Saeculare (17 BC), eloquently invokes her as the "two-horned queen of the stars" (siderum regina bicornis), imploring her to heed the songs of young girls, just as Apollo listens to the boys.
Imperial Significance
Within the context of the Imperial cult, Luna, alongside Sol, held profound symbolic weight. They were often depicted representing the vast extent of Roman dominion over the world, serving to guarantee the Pax Romana, a period of relative peace and stability. This portrayal underscored the cosmic order and divine sanction believed to underpin Roman rule.
Greek Counterpart: Selene
Luna's Greek counterpart is Selene, and in Roman art and literature, many of Selene's myths were adapted and retold under Luna's name. A notable example is the myth of Endymion, a shepherd or king whom Selene fell in love with. This narrative became a popular subject in Roman wall paintings, illustrating the cultural exchange and adaptation of mythological traditions between Greece and Rome.
Cult & Worship
Agricultural Importance
Luna's significance extended into the practical realm of Roman life, particularly agriculture. Varro lists Luna among twelve deities considered vital to agricultural prosperity. Similarly, Vergil, in his Georgics, includes Luna and Sol in a distinct list of twelve, referring to them as clarissima mundi lumina, the world's clearest sources of light. This highlights her perceived influence over natural cycles essential for successful harvests.
Royal Origins of Her Cult
The establishment of Luna's worship in Rome is traditionally traced back to the semi-legendary era of the Roman kings. Titus Tatius, a Sabine king, is believed to have introduced the cult of Luna to Rome from the Sabines. Later, Servius Tullius, another legendary king, is credited with the foundational act of creating the Temple of Luna on the Aventine Hill, strategically located just below a temple dedicated to Diana, further intertwining their worship.
Sacred Day: Monday
Luna's celestial connection is also reflected in the Roman calendar. The day known as dies Lunae, or "Luna's day," is the origin of our modern "Monday." This designation underscores her enduring presence in the weekly cycle and her association with the rhythms of time.
Sanctuaries of Luna
The Aventine Temple
The Temple of Luna on the Aventine Hill was a significant site of worship. Its founding anniversary, or dies natalis, was celebrated annually on March 31. This temple is mentioned in Roman literature, notably in accounts of its vulnerability to natural disasters. In 182 BC, an exceptionally powerful windstorm tore off its doors, sending them crashing into the Temple of Ceres situated below. Later, in 84 BC, it was struck by lightning, coincidentally on the same day the popularis leader Cinna was assassinated by his own troops. Historical evidence suggests this Aventine temple may have been destroyed during the Great Fire of Rome under Emperor Nero's reign.
Noctiluna on the Palatine
Luna also possessed a temple on the Palatine Hill, where she was venerated under the epithet Noctiluna, meaning "Night-Shiner." Varro described this temple as shining or glowing by night, though the precise nature of this illumination remains unclear to modern scholars. This unique designation and description suggest a particular emphasis on Luna's luminous quality and her role in illuminating the darkness.
Juno's Lunar Connection
Kalends and Nones
The Kalends of every month, which marked the occurrence of the new moon according to the lunar calendar, were held sacred to Juno. This dedication paralleled the Ides, which were sacred to Jupiter. On the Nones, typically the fifth or seventh day of the month, Juno was specifically honored as Juno Covella, an epithet signifying her connection to the crescent moon. This highlights Juno's deep-rooted association with lunar phases and their calendrical significance.
Lucina: Goddess of Childbirth
Both Juno and Diana, another prominent Roman goddess, were invoked with the epithet Lucina. This title designated them as goddesses of childbirth, further linking them to the moon's influence, which was often associated with fertility and the cycles of life. The term "Lucina" itself derives from lux, meaning "light," possibly referring to bringing children into the light of day, or to the moon's light guiding the process.
The Celestial Chariot
Luna's Biga
Luna is frequently depicted traversing the heavens in a two-yoke chariot, or biga, typically drawn by a pair of horses or oxen. In Roman artistic representations, the charioteer Luna is consistently paired with the Sun god, Sol, who drives a more elaborate four-horse chariot, the quadriga. This pairing visually emphasizes their complementary roles in the cosmos.
Hecate's Connection
Intriguingly, a biga drawn by oxen was also associated with Hecate, the chthonic aspect of the triple goddess, who complemented the "horned" or crescent-crowned Diana and Luna. The scholar Servius identified the three-form Hecate (trimorphos) with Luna, Diana, and Proserpina. This connection underscores the ancient understanding of the moon's multifaceted influence, linking it to both celestial and underworld domains, and to goddesses with diverse powers over heavens, land, and sea, as Hesiod described Hecate's original authority.
Mithraic Iconography
Luna in her biga was also a recurring element within Mithraic iconography, frequently appearing in the context of the tauroctony, the iconic scene of Mithras slaying a bull. A unique wall painting from the mithraeum of S. Maria Capua Vetere specifically focuses on Luna alone, depicting one of her chariot horses as light in color and the other a dark brown, further illustrating the dualistic symbolism often associated with the moon.
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References
References
- C.M.C. Green, Roman Religion and the Cult of Diana at Aricia (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p.ย 73.
- Jรยถrg Rรยผpke, Religion of the Romans, p.ย 133.
- William Van Andringa, "Religion and the Integration of Cities in the Empire in the Second Century AD: The Creation of a Common Religious Language," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p.ย 94.
- Annemarie Kaufmann-Heinimann, "Religion in the House", in A Companion to Roman Religion, p.ย 188.
- Varro, De re rustica 1.1.4รขยย6.
- Varro, as preserved by Augustine of Hippo, De Civitate Dei 7.2.
- Varro, De lingua latina 5.74; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.50.3.
- Orosius 5.12.3รขยย10; De Vir. Ill. 65; Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p.ย 238.
- Ovid, Fasti 3.883รขยย84; Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary, p.ย 238.
- Livy 40.2.2; Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary, p.ย 238.
- Tacitus, Annales 15.41; Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary, p.ย 238.
- M.J. Vermaseren, Mithraica I: The Mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere (Brill, 1971), pp.ย 14รขยย15; Plato, Phaedrus 246.
- Servius, note to Aeneid 6.118.
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