What was the period known as 'May 68' in France?

May 68 refers to a period of widespread civil unrest, including protests and strikes, that occurred in France during May and June of 1968. This social uprising is considered one of the most significant in modern European history, bringing the country close to revolution and profoundly influencing French politics, labor relations, and culture.

When did the events of May 68 take place in France?

The events of May 68 primarily occurred between May 2 and June 23, 1968, lasting for over a month and three weeks.

What were the initial sparks that ignited the May 68 protests?

The protests were initially sparked by student demonstrations against university conditions and government repression, particularly at Paris Nanterre University. These student actions quickly escalated and spread.

What broader societal discontent fueled the May 68 movement?

Beyond student grievances, the movement was fueled by a broader discontent with conservative social norms, the perceived outdated and repressive nature of President Charles de Gaulle's Fifth Republic, and dissatisfaction among the working class regarding stagnant wages and poor working conditions.

What was the context of France during the period leading up to May 68?

Following World War II, France experienced rapid modernization, economic growth, and urbanization, a period known as the 'Trente Glorieuses' (Thirty Glorious Years). However, this growth also exacerbated social tensions and alienation, especially among students and young workers, creating fertile ground for protest.

Which ideologies influenced the students involved in the May 68 protests?

The students involved in the May 68 protests were significantly influenced by countercultural, anti-imperialist, Marxist, and anarchist ideologies, viewing their struggle as revolutionary against capitalism and authoritarianism.

How did the protests escalate from student demonstrations to a nationwide general strike?

After initial student protests at Nanterre and the Sorbonne led to police intervention and closures, public outrage grew. A large demonstration on May 13, involving millions of workers, transformed the situation into a nationwide general strike that paralyzed the country.

What was the scale of the general strike that occurred in May 1968?

The general strike involved approximately 10 million workers, which represented about two-thirds of the French labor force. This made it the largest general strike in French history, shutting down factories, transportation, and public services.

What role did the French Communist Party play in the events of May 68?

The French Communist Party was one of the major opposition groups involved. While they participated in the general strike, their approach was seen by some as more moderate compared to the more radical student factions, and they were hesitant to pursue an armed uprising, preferring legal electoral means.

What action did President Charles de Gaulle take when the country was on the brink of revolution?

On May 29, 1968, President Charles de Gaulle secretly left Paris for a French military base in West Germany to meet with General Jacques Massu. He returned the following day, dissolved the National Assembly, and called for new elections, signaling a move to regain control.

What were the Grenelle agreements, and what was their impact?

The Grenelle agreements were negotiations between major trade unions, employers' organizations, and the French government on May 27, 1968. They resulted in concessions such as a 35% increase in the minimum wage and a 10% increase in all salaries, along with improved working conditions. However, the unions initially had to reject the agreement due to opposition from their members.

What was the outcome of the legislative elections held after the May 68 events?

In the legislative elections held on June 23, 1968, President de Gaulle's party secured a significant victory, winning 353 out of 486 seats. This outcome signaled the end of the immediate revolutionary momentum of the May 68 movement.

What were some of the long-term consequences of the May 68 movement in France?

Despite failing to cause a revolution, May 68 led to increased state investment in education and social policies, major concessions in labor rights, and fostered the growth of feminist, environmentalist, and LGBTQ activism. It also influenced radical thought in various fields and left a lasting legacy of protest slogans and imagery.

How did the May 68 events affect President Charles de Gaulle's political standing?

Although de Gaulle's party won the subsequent election, the events of May 68 weakened his authority. He resigned the following year after losing a referendum, indicating that while 'Gaullism' remained, the country was ready for a change from de Gaulle himself.

What is the meaning of the term 'soixante-huitard'?

A 'soixante-huitard' is a term used to describe someone who participated in or supported the events of May 1968 in France.

What were some of the notable slogans associated with the May 68 movement?

Some of the most famous slogans from May 68 included 'Sous les pavés, la plage!' (Under the paving stones, the beach!), 'Il est interdit d'interdire' (It is forbidden to forbid), 'L'imagination au pouvoir' (Power to the imagination), and 'CRS = SS'.

What is the significance of the slogan 'Sous les pavés, la plage!'?

Coined by Bernard Cousin and Bernard Fritsch, 'Sous les pavés, la plage!' ('Under the paving stones, the beach!') became an emblem of the May 68 movement. It reflected the students' literal use of paving stones to build barricades and metaphorically represented a desire for liberation from the constraints of urbanization and modern society.

How did the French government initially respond to the student demonstrations?

The government's response was often heavy-handed, involving police intervention, campus closures (like Nanterre), and mass arrests, which ultimately fueled further public outrage and broader participation in the protests.

What was the role of the Sorbonne University during the May 68 events?

The Sorbonne became a focal point for student protests after the Nanterre campus was closed. On May 6, police dispersed a student gathering there, leading to clashes and barricades. When reopened, students occupied it and declared it an autonomous 'people's university'.

What happened on the night of May 10, 1968?

The night of May 10, known as 'Night of the Barricades,' saw intense street battles between protesters and the Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité (CRS) after police attempted to disperse crowds on the Rive Gauche. Hundreds were arrested and injured during this confrontation.

How did the media cover the events of May 68?

The events were broadcast on radio as they occurred, and the aftermath was shown on television the next day. The police brutality that came to light garnered public sympathy for the protesters.

What was the political climate in France in February 1968, prior to the May events?

In February 1968, the French Communist Party and the French Section of the Workers' International formed an electoral alliance, agreeing to attempt to form a joint government to replace President Charles de Gaulle and his Gaullist Party.

What specific grievances were raised by students at Paris Nanterre University?

Students at Nanterre protested against class discrimination in French society and the political bureaucracy controlling university funding. They also expressed frustration with the rigid academic structure.

What was the 'Movement of 22 March'?

The 'Movement of 22 March' was a group of students, poets, musicians, and far-left activists who occupied an administration building at Paris University at Nanterre on March 22, 1968, to discuss societal issues. Some leaders of this movement were later summoned by the university's disciplinary committee.

What was the government's reaction to the widespread strikes and protests?

Initially, the government struggled to regain control. After de Gaulle's temporary departure and return, he dissolved the National Assembly and called for elections, threatening a state of emergency if workers did not return to work. The government also banned several leftist organizations.

How did the May 68 movement influence subsequent social activism in France?

The movement contributed to the rise of new social movements, including feminist, environmentalist, and LGBTQ activism. It also inspired radical thought in philosophy, media, and academia, influencing prominent thinkers.

What was the significance of the graffiti and slogans during May 68?

The graffiti and slogans, such as 'Il est interdit d'interdire' and 'L'imagination au pouvoir,' became iconic representations of the movement's spirit, challenging authority and expressing desires for freedom and radical change. They remain significant cultural touchstones in France.

Were there any casualties reported during the May 68 events?

Yes, according to reports from May 25, 1968, two people died during the fighting, and over 1,000 people were injured, with hundreds hospitalized. Additionally, over 1,000 arrests were made on that day alone.

How did the French military's potential involvement factor into the resolution of the crisis?

There were preparations for potential military intervention, with tanks positioned near Paris. However, the government's decision to dissolve the National Assembly and call elections, coupled with the Communists' non-revolutionary stance, averted the need for military action, which was considered highly dangerous given the conscript nature of the army.

What impact did the May 68 events have on the French education system?

The events led to increased state investment in education and social policies, reflecting some of the demands and critiques raised by the student movement.

Which prominent philosophers and intellectuals were influenced by or participated in the May 68 movement?

Figures like Michel Foucault and Jean Baudrillard were influenced by the radical thought and activism of May 68. The movement's ideas permeated philosophical and academic discourse.

How is the May 68 movement remembered in French popular culture?

The events of May 68 have been widely depicted and referenced in French cinema, music, and literature, serving as a cultural touchstone that continues to be explored and debated.

What role did the Atelier Populaire play during May 68?

The Atelier Populaire was a collective of artists and designers, primarily from the École des Beaux-Arts, who produced posters during the May 68 uprising. These posters, often featuring slogans and political commentary, became iconic visual representations of the movement.

What does the phrase 'CRS = SS' signify in the context of May 68?

The slogan 'CRS = SS' equated the French riot police (Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité) with the Nazi SS, reflecting the protesters' perception of the police's actions as brutal and oppressive, similar to the tactics of the SS during World War II.

How did the French Communist Party's stance on revolution influence the outcome?

While the extent of revolutionary planning is debated, the Communist Party's general opposition to an armed uprising and their focus on electoral politics likely contributed to preventing a full-scale revolution. Their belief in achieving power through legal means, rather than violent conflict, played a role in de-escalating the situation.

What was the public perception of the student leaders who appeared on national television?

Public opinion, initially supportive of the students, reportedly turned against them after their leaders appeared on national television and were perceived as 'irresponsible utopianists' aiming to destroy the consumer society.

What was the significance of de Gaulle's temporary disappearance on May 29, 1968?

De Gaulle's secret trip to West Germany, lasting over six hours without the government knowing his whereabouts, created a sense of governmental collapse and uncertainty. Although not intended as a political maneuver, it reminded the French people of what they might lose if the state failed, ultimately bolstering his resolve to return and take action.

How did the events of May 68 impact labor relations in France?

The strikes forced significant concessions in labor rights, including substantial wage increases, improvements in working conditions, and expanded social protections, fundamentally altering the relationship between workers, unions, and employers.

What were some of the key films that depicted or were influenced by the May 68 events?

Films such as François Truffaut's 'Baisers volés' (1968), Jean-Luc Godard's 'Tout Va Bien' (1972), Jean Eustache's 'The Mother and the Whore' (1973), and Bernardo Bertolucci's 'The Dreamers' (2003) either directly referenced or were thematically influenced by the May 68 movement and its aftermath.

Which musicians or bands released songs related to the May 68 events?

Several artists were inspired by May 68, including Léo Ferré with songs like 'L'Été 68', Claude Nougaro with 'Paris Mai', The Rolling Stones who wrote 'Street Fighting Man' partly inspired by French police sirens, and The Refused with 'Protest Song '68'.

What does the slogan 'Marx, Mao, Marcuse!' represent?

This slogan, often abbreviated as '3M', reflects the influence of key radical thinkers and ideologies on the May 68 movement, combining Marxist and Maoist political thought with the critical theory of Herbert Marcuse.

How did the 'Trente Glorieuses' context relate to the May 68 unrest?

The 'Trente Glorieuses' (Thirty Glorious Years) refers to the post-WWII period of economic growth in France. While prosperous, this era also saw increasing social inequalities and alienation, particularly among youth and workers, which contributed to the underlying tensions that erupted in May 68.

What was the significance of the student occupation of universities?

Universities, like the Sorbonne and Nanterre, were occupied by students, transforming them into centers of protest and debate. This occupation symbolized a rejection of traditional authority and a move towards creating alternative, 'people's' institutions.

What was the 'Atelier Populaire'?

The Atelier Populaire was a collective of artists and students who created political posters during the May 68 protests. Their work, often produced rapidly and anonymously, became a powerful visual voice for the movement.

How did the French government attempt to regain control after de Gaulle's return?

Upon returning, de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly, scheduled new elections, and ordered workers back to their jobs, threatening a state of emergency. He also broadcast a message of resolve, which was followed by a large pro-government rally.

What was the 'Night of the Barricades'?

The 'Night of the Barricades' refers to the events of May 10, 1968, when students erected barricades in Paris to resist police advances. The police subsequently attacked these barricades, leading to significant clashes, arrests, and injuries.

What was the general sentiment of the French population regarding revolution during May 68?

Surveys conducted after the crisis indicated a divided public opinion. While about 20% might have supported a revolution, a larger portion opposed it or preferred to avoid involvement. If military intervention had occurred, a majority indicated they would avoid taking sides.

How did the May 68 movement influence later social movements?

The May 68 movement is seen by some as marking the end of traditional collective action and the beginning of an era dominated by 'new social movements,' including those focused on feminism, environmentalism, and LGBTQ rights.

What is the meaning of 'Il est interdit d'interdire'?

'Il est interdit d'interdire' translates to 'It is forbidden to forbid.' This slogan encapsulates the spirit of rebellion and the desire to break down restrictions and prohibitions that characterized the May 68 movement.

What was the outcome of the Grenelle agreements for the unions?

While the Grenelle agreements offered significant concessions like wage increases, the major trade unions were compelled to reject them due to opposition from their members. This highlighted a disconnect between union leadership and the rank-and-file workers.

May 68 Wiki: The Unfolding of May '68: Revolution, Reaction, and Resonance

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Overview

A Pivotal Moment

May 1968 in France signifies a period of intense civil unrest, marked by widespread student demonstrations and a nationwide general strike. This tumultuous phase brought the nation to the precipice of revolution, fundamentally altering its political, social, and cultural landscape. The events remain a significant reference point in modern European history.

Escalation and Impact

Initially sparked by student grievances against university conditions and state repression, the movement rapidly transformed into a massive general strike involving millions of workers. This widespread disruption paralyzed the country, challenging the authority of President Charles de Gaulle's government and highlighting deep-seated societal discontent.

Context of Change

Occurring within the broader context of global protests in 1968 and the Cold War, May '68 was fueled by post-war modernization, growing inequalities, and dissatisfaction with conservative social norms. Student activism, influenced by Marxist, anarchist, and countercultural ideologies, converged with labor demands, creating a potent force for change.

Background

Post-War France

The period following World War II, known as the Trente Glorieuses (Thirty Glorious Years), saw significant economic growth and modernization in France. However, this era also exacerbated social inequalities and fostered alienation, particularly among students and young workers facing rigid academic structures and challenging labor conditions.

Student Discontent

By the late 1960s, France's university system was strained by a rapidly expanding student population. Academic structures were perceived as outdated and unresponsive to student needs. Influenced by global countercultural and radical political movements, students began to view their struggles as part of a larger revolutionary movement against capitalism and authoritarianism.

Political Climate

President Charles de Gaulle's Fifth Republic, while stable, was seen by many as increasingly conservative and repressive. An electoral alliance formed between the French Communist Party and the French Section of the Workers' International in February 1968 signaled potential shifts in the political landscape, though the established order remained dominant.

Student Protests

The Spark at Nanterre

The initial catalyst for the May '68 events occurred in March 1968 at Paris Nanterre University. Protests against class discrimination and university bureaucracy led to clashes with authorities. The university's closure on May 2nd redirected student activism to the Sorbonne campus in central Paris.

Escalation and Barricades

On May 6th, police violently dispersed a student gathering at the Sorbonne, resulting in widespread clashes, hundreds of arrests, and the erection of barricades. The state's heavy-handed response fueled public outrage and solidarity, drawing in high school students and supporters.

Dropping of all criminal charges against arrested students.
Withdrawal of police from university campuses.
Reopening of Nanterre and Sorbonne universities.

Graffiti and Discourse

The walls of Paris became canvases for revolutionary slogans and critiques of society. Phrases like "It is forbidden to forbid" and "Under the paving stones, the beach!" captured the spirit of liberation and defiance, reflecting a desire to challenge established norms and authority.

Worker Strikes

The General Strike

By mid-May, the student movement had ignited a nationwide general strike. Approximately 10 million workers, representing two-thirds of the French workforce, participated, halting factories, transportation, and essential services. This marked the largest general strike in French history.

Divergent Agendas

While students sought radical societal transformation, workers' demands primarily focused on wage increases, improved working conditions, and reduced working hours. The Grenelle agreements, negotiated on May 27th, offered significant concessions, including a 10% wage increase and a 35% rise in the minimum wage, but were initially rejected by union members.

Confrontations and Casualties

The escalating unrest led to violent confrontations. By May 24th, reports indicated two deaths among rioters and hundreds injured and arrested in clashes, highlighting the volatile nature of the situation. The government's response, including police actions, generated significant public outcry.

Political Crisis

De Gaulle's Disappearance

On May 29th, President de Gaulle, facing immense pressure and fearing a loss of control, secretly left Paris for French military headquarters in West Germany. This temporary absence fueled speculation about his potential resignation and the collapse of state authority.

After meeting with General Jacques Massu and securing military support, de Gaulle returned to Paris. He subsequently announced the dissolution of the National Assembly and called for new legislative elections, signaling a move to regain control and restore order.

Election and Resolution

The government's announcement of the army's readiness and the planned elections shifted the political momentum. A massive pro-Gaullist rally on May 30th demonstrated significant public support for stability. The legislative elections held in June resulted in a decisive victory for de Gaulle's party, effectively ending the immediate revolutionary threat.

Opposition's Position

Opposition parties, including the Socialists and Communists, attempted to capitalize on the crisis. However, divisions within the left and public apprehension about a potential Communist takeover, influenced by events in Eastern Europe, hindered their ability to present a unified alternative government.

Aftermath

Fading Momentum

Following de Gaulle's decisive actions and the election results, the revolutionary fervor waned. Workers gradually returned to their jobs, and student demonstrations subsided. Police regained control of occupied university spaces, and several leftist organizations were banned.

Political Shifts

Although de Gaulle's party secured a landslide victory, the events significantly weakened his authority. He resigned the following year after failing to win a referendum. The May '68 movement, while not achieving immediate revolution, spurred long-term changes in state policy towards education and social welfare.

Labor Concessions

The widespread strikes forced significant concessions in labor rights. The Grenelle agreements, eventually accepted, led to substantial wage increases and improved working conditions, fundamentally altering the relationship between labor and capital in France.

Legacy

Cultural and Intellectual Impact

May '68 left an indelible mark on French culture and intellectual life. It fostered the growth of feminist, environmentalist, and LGBTQ+ activism. Thinkers like Michel Foucault and Jean Baudrillard were influenced by the movement's critique of power structures and societal norms.

Enduring Slogans

The iconic slogans and graffiti generated during May '68 continue to resonate in political and social discourse. Phrases such as "Power to the imagination" and "Be realistic, demand the impossible" encapsulate the era's spirit of radical possibility and critique.

Il est interdit d'interdire ("It is forbidden to forbid")
L'imagination au pouvoir ("Power to the imagination")
Jouissez sans entraves ("Enjoy without hindrance")
Soyez réalistes, demandez l'impossible ("Be realistic, demand the impossible")
CRS = SS (Comparing riot police to the SS)
Je suis Marxiste—tendance Groucho ("I'm a Marxist—of the Groucho persuasion")
Marx, Mao, Marcuse!
Sous les pavés, la plage! ("Under the paving stones, the beach!")

Influence on Arts

The events profoundly influenced cinema, music, and literature. Films by directors like Jean-Luc Godard, Louis Malle, and Bernardo Bertolucci explored the themes and aftermath of May '68. Musicians, including Léo Ferré and The Rolling Stones, referenced the protests in their work, capturing the era's revolutionary energy.

Slogans and Graffiti

The Language of Revolt

The walls of Paris and other cities became a vibrant medium for expressing the dissent and aspirations of the May '68 movement. Graffiti and slogans offered a direct, often poetic, critique of societal structures, consumerism, and authority.

"Under the Paving Stones, the Beach!"

This iconic slogan, Sous les pavés, la plage!, encapsulated the movement's desire to break free from the constraints of urban life and societal norms, revealing a hidden potential for liberation beneath the surface of everyday reality. It symbolized the discovery of unexpected possibilities amidst the chaos.

Challenging Authority

Many slogans directly challenged prohibitions and restrictions, reflecting a core anti-authoritarian sentiment. Phrases like Il est interdit d'interdire ("It is forbidden to forbid") became emblematic of the demand for greater personal and political freedom.

Cultural Resonance

Cinema's Reflection

Filmmakers captured the spirit and consequences of May '68. Works like Jean-Luc Godard's Tout Va Bien and Bernardo Bertolucci's The Dreamers explored the class struggles and personal transformations influenced by the events, offering diverse perspectives on the movement's impact.

Musical Echoes

The protests inspired musicians across genres and borders. French artists like Léo Ferré and Claude Nougaro released songs reflecting the era's mood. Internationally, The Rolling Stones' "Street Fighting Man" and David Holmes's "I Heard Wonders" drew inspiration from the revolutionary atmosphere.

Léo Ferré's songs: "L'Été 68", "Paris je ne t'aime plus", etc.
Claude Nougaro: "Paris Mai"
The Rolling Stones: "Street Fighting Man"
David Holmes: "I Heard Wonders"
The Refused: "Protest Song '68"
The Stone Roses: "Bye Bye Badman"
Vangelis: Fais que ton rêve soit plus long que la nuit
Caetano Veloso: "É Proibido Proibir"

Artistic Expression

Visual artists, particularly through the Atelier Populaire at the École des Beaux-Arts, created powerful posters that became symbols of the movement. Spanish painter Joan Miró's work May 1968 and Herman Braun-Vega's triptych also reflected the artistic engagement with the events.

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References

A full list of references for this article are available at the May 68 Wikipedia page

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Disclaimer

Historical Context and Interpretation

This content was generated by an AI based on historical data, aiming for an academic perspective suitable for higher education students. While striving for accuracy and adherence to the source material, interpretations of historical events can vary. The information provided is intended for educational purposes and does not constitute definitive historical analysis or political commentary.

This is not political or historical advice. Users should consult primary sources and diverse scholarly analyses for a comprehensive understanding of the May 1968 events and their complex legacy. Reliance on this information alone is not recommended for academic research without further verification.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

The Unfolding of May '68

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview 📜

🌍 A Pivotal Moment

💥 Escalation and Impact

🏛️ Context of Change

Background 🏛️

📈 Post-War France

🎓 Student Discontent

⚖️ Political Climate

Student Protests 🎓

📢 The Spark at Nanterre

🧱 Escalation and Barricades

🗣️ Graffiti and Discourse

Worker Strikes 🏭

✊ The General Strike

🤝 Divergent Agendas

🔥 Confrontations and Casualties

Political Crisis ⚖️

💨 De Gaulle's Disappearance

🗳️ Election and Resolution

📉 Opposition's Position

Aftermath 🗳️

🌬️ Fading Momentum

🏛️ Political Shifts

⚖️ Labor Concessions

Legacy 🌳

💡 Cultural and Intellectual Impact

💬 Enduring Slogans

🎬 Influence on Arts

Slogans and Graffiti 💬

📜 The Language of Revolt

🏖️ "Under the Paving Stones, the Beach!"

🚫 Challenging Authority

Cultural Resonance 🎬

🎞️ Cinema's Reflection

🎶 Musical Echoes

🎨 Artistic Expression

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

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Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Historical Context and Interpretation

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

A Pivotal Moment

Escalation and Impact

Context of Change

Background

Post-War France

Student Discontent

Political Climate

Student Protests

The Spark at Nanterre

Escalation and Barricades

Graffiti and Discourse

Worker Strikes

The General Strike

Divergent Agendas

Confrontations and Casualties

Political Crisis

De Gaulle's Disappearance

Election and Resolution

Opposition's Position

Aftermath

Fading Momentum

Political Shifts

Labor Concessions

Legacy

Cultural and Intellectual Impact

Enduring Slogans

Influence on Arts

Slogans and Graffiti

The Language of Revolt

"Under the Paving Stones, the Beach!"

Challenging Authority

Cultural Resonance

Cinema's Reflection

Musical Echoes

Artistic Expression

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Historical Context and Interpretation