What is the primary definition of a megacity?

A megacity is generally defined as a very large city, typically with a population exceeding 10 million people. This threshold is commonly used by organizations like the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA).

Are there varying definitions for what constitutes a megacity?

Yes, while the most common definition uses a population threshold of over 10 million people, some sources suggest a minimum threshold ranging from five to eight million people, often coupled with a specific population density requirement.

Which United Nations department provides a definition for megacities?

The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) defines megacities as urban agglomerations with over 10 million inhabitants, as stated in their 2018 "World Urbanization Prospects" report.

According to a University of Bonn report, how are megacities typically defined?

A report from the University of Bonn indicates that megacities are usually defined as metropolitan areas with a total population of 10 million or more people.

What is the minimum population threshold mentioned by some sources for a megacity, along with a density requirement?

Some sources consider a minimum population of five to eight million people as the threshold for a megacity, provided there is also a population density of at least 2,000 people per square kilometer.

What other terms are sometimes used interchangeably with megacity?

The terms conurbation, metropolis, and metroplex are also applied to large urban areas that meet the criteria for megacities.

How does the number of megacities vary across different sources?

The total number of megacities varies depending on the source and its publication date. For instance, estimates range from 32 (EU Global Human Settlement Layer, 2024) to 33 (UN DESA, 2018), 39 (OECD), 44 (Demographia, 2023), and 45 (CityPopulation.de, 2023), with 53 unique places mentioned across these sources.

Which countries have the highest number of megacities?

A significant percentage of megacities are located in China and India. Brazil, Japan, Pakistan, and the United States are other countries with more than one megacity.

Which continents and specific countries are noted for having megacities?

Megacities are found across Africa (Nigeria, Egypt, South Africa, Angola, DRC), Europe (Russia, France, UK, Turkey), Latin America (Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Argentina), and Asia. Turkey's megacities are noted as being in both Europe and Asia.

Which urban areas are cited as potentially the largest megacities in the world?

The Greater Tokyo Area is identified by some sources as the world's largest megacity, while others attribute this title to the Pearl River Delta in China.

What is the Urban Metric System (UMS)?

The Urban Metric System (UMS) is a proposed system designed to correct issues with arbitrary and varying definitions of urban areas across different countries and censuses. It aims to provide a consistent method for calculating urban area limits and central points.

On what principle is the Urban Metric System (UMS) based?

The UMS is based on vector field calculations, assuming that all inhabitants and jobs exert an attractive force (A) and a repulsive force (R). The net force is calculated using the formula [1/(1 + d)] - [1/(β + d/2)], where 'd' is distance and 'β' is a single parameter that defines the type of urban area.

How does the UMS classify different types of urban areas?

The UMS classifies urban areas based on the value of the parameter 'β'. Different values of 'β' correspond to categories such as Central city, Agglomeration, Metropolis, Patropolis, Megalopolis, Urban system, Urban macrosystem, Continental system, Intercontinental system, and World system.

What is a 'Patropolis' in the context of the Urban Metric System?

In the Urban Metric System (UMS), a 'Patropolis' is considered equivalent to a megacity and corresponds to a 'β' value of 41, with the attractive and repulsive forces being equal at a distance of 80 km.

When did the term 'megacity' first enter common usage?

The term 'megacity' began to be used commonly in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, with one of the earliest documented uses attributed to the University of Texas in 1904.

How has the United Nations' definition of a megacity evolved?

Initially, the United Nations used the term 'megacity' to describe cities with 8 million or more inhabitants. However, they now use a threshold of 10 million inhabitants.

Who coined the term 'megacity' in the context of urban agglomerations?

Urbanist Janice Perlman coined the term 'megacity' in the mid-1970s to refer to the phenomenon of very large urban agglomerations.

What was the global urbanization rate in 1800 and by the end of the 20th century?

In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities. This figure rose significantly to 47% by the end of the 20th century.

How has the number of cities with over one million inhabitants changed over time?

The number of cities with populations exceeding one million grew substantially, from 83 in 1950 to 468 by 2007. A significant portion of these, 153, were located in Asia.

What was the projected urban population growth by 2030?

The UN forecasted in 2010 that the global urban population, which was 3.2 billion, would rise to nearly 5 billion by 2030, with 60% of people living in cities.

On which continents is the most dramatic increase in urban population expected?

The most dramatic increase in urban population is expected on the least-urbanized continents, specifically Asia and Africa, with all urban growth over the next 25 years projected to occur in developing countries.

What is the estimated number of people living in shanty towns globally?

Currently, approximately one billion people, which is almost one-seventh of the world's population, live in shanty towns.

What challenges do slums in developing countries often present?

Slums in many developing countries often exhibit high rates of disease due to inadequate sanitation, drainage, water access, and lack of basic healthcare. These conditions also raise political, social, and economic issues, and residents frequently have minimal access to education or the urban economy.

What is the projected number of people living in slums by 2030?

It is projected that by 2030, over 2 billion people worldwide will be living in slums.

Which Asian megacities are projected to have significant populations by 2025?

By 2025, Asia is expected to have at least 30 megacities, including Mumbai, Shanghai, Delhi, Tokyo, and Seoul, with populations projected to be in the tens of millions.

How has Lagos, Nigeria, grown in population?

Lagos, Nigeria, has experienced substantial growth, increasing from a population of 300,000 in 1950 to an estimated 21 million in recent times.

What historical city was once the largest and most influential in the ancient world?

For nearly five hundred years during the Roman Republic and Empire, Rome was the largest, wealthiest, and most politically significant city, ruling over Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa.

What were the estimated population ranges for ancient Rome?

Scholars generally estimate Rome's population at 750,000 to 1,000,000 people by the end of the 1st century BC. However, if population densities were similar to Pompeii or Ostia, the population might have been around 500,000.

What caused the significant decline in Rome's population during the Early Middle Ages?

Rome's population declined drastically to around 20,000 during the Early Middle Ages after Emperor Flavius Honorius moved the government to Ravenna in 402 AD, leaving the city with large areas of ruins interspersed with inhabited buildings.

Which city was likely the largest in the world from the late 8th century until the 10th century?

Baghdad was likely the largest city globally from shortly after its founding in 762 AD until the 930s, with some estimates suggesting its population exceeded one million.

What was London's status in the world during the 19th century?

During the 19th century, London transformed into the world's largest city and served as the capital of the British Empire, experiencing rapid population growth and becoming the first city to surpass 5 million inhabitants around 1900.

Which city was the sole megacity in 1950?

In 1950, New York City was the only urban area in the world with a population exceeding 10 million people.

How has the number of megacities changed since the 1980s?

The number of megacities has increased significantly; there were only nine in 1985, growing to 19 by 2004, and 25 identified by October 2005. This growth reflects the global trend of populations moving towards higher urbanization levels seen in North America and Western Europe.

What is the characteristic issue regarding population estimates for megacities?

A characteristic challenge with megacities is the difficulty in accurately defining their outer limits and estimating their populations, leading to variations in figures across different sources.

What are some of the major challenges faced by megacities?

Megacities face numerous challenges, including the prevalence of slums, high crime rates, significant homelessness, severe traffic congestion, urban sprawl, gentrification, air pollution, and the strain on energy and material resources.

What is the trend in the proportion of urban dwellers living in slums in the developing world?

Between 1990 and 2005, the proportion of urban dwellers living in slums or informal settlements decreased from 47% to 37% in the developing world. However, due to population growth, the absolute number of slum dwellers has increased, surpassing one billion in 2018.

What factors contribute to the increase in informal settlement populations in cities?

The increase in informal settlement populations is driven by massive migration, both internal and transnational, into cities. This migration leads to unprecedented growth rates and spatial concentrations of urban populations.

How do population density and crime rates often correlate in megacities?

High population densities in megacities are often associated with higher crime rates. This is visibly observed in major urban centers like Karachi, Delhi, Cairo, Rio de Janeiro, and Lagos.

What is the 'Housing First' approach in the context of homelessness?

The 'Housing First' approach is a strategy implemented in some US cities to address homelessness. Instead of keeping individuals in emergency shelters, it prioritizes providing them with permanent housing and necessary support services to help them maintain their new homes.

What are the estimated economic impacts of traffic congestion in large metropolitan areas?

In 2000, the 75 largest US metropolitan areas experienced billions of dollars in losses due to traffic congestion, including wasted fuel and lost productivity, estimated to be about 0.7% of the nation's GDP. The annual cost per driver was approximately $1,000 in very large cities.

What are the key characteristics of urban sprawl?

Urban sprawl, or suburban sprawl, is characterized by the outward expansion of cities and their suburbs into low-density areas. It is often associated with land development that encourages car dependency and can lead to longer commutes and higher per-person infrastructure costs.

What socio-cultural changes are associated with gentrification?

Gentrification involves socio-cultural changes in an area as wealthier individuals purchase property in less affluent communities. This process can lead to rising living costs, forcing lower-income residents to relocate, and often results in a decrease in average family size and a shift from industrial to residential or commercial land use.

What is air pollution, and where is it particularly prevalent?

Air pollution is the introduction of harmful chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials into the atmosphere. This issue is especially prevalent in developing nations and is often linked to vehicle emissions and industrial fumes that create smog.

What is smog, and how is it formed?

Smog is a type of air pollution resulting from the reaction of vehicle emissions and industrial fumes in the atmosphere with sunlight. This process creates secondary pollutants that combine with primary emissions to form photochemical smog.

How do energy and material resource management affect the sustainability of megacities?

The sustainability of megacities is significantly influenced by how they manage their energy and material resources. Factors like electricity consumption, ground transportation energy use, water consumption, and waste generation are correlated with resource efficiency.

How are megacities commonly depicted in science fiction?

Megacities frequently serve as backdrops in dystopian science fiction narratives, often representing vast, overcrowded, and technologically advanced, yet socially stratified, urban environments.

Can you provide examples of fictional megacities?

Examples of fictional megacities include the 'Sprawl' in William Gibson's 'Neuromancer,' 'Mega-City One' from the 'Judge Dredd' comic, 'San Angeles' in the film 'Demolition Man,' and planet-wide ecumenopoleis like 'Trantor' from Isaac Asimov's 'Foundation' series and 'Coruscant' from the 'Star Wars' universe.

What historical city experienced a significant population decline from its peak?

Rome experienced a dramatic population decline from an estimated 750,000-1,000,000 inhabitants to a mere 20,000 during the Early Middle Ages after the Western Roman Empire's government relocated.

What is the significance of the 'β' parameter in the Urban Metric System?

The 'β' parameter in the Urban Metric System (UMS) is the sole variable used to classify different types of urban areas, ranging from a central city to a world system, based on the distance at which attractive and repulsive forces balance.

What does the table listing megacities indicate about population estimates?

The table shows that population estimates for megacities vary considerably between different sources (Citypopulation.de, Demographia, GHSL, UN DESA, OECD) for the same year, highlighting the challenges in consistent measurement.

What does a red asterisk (*) next to a population figure in the megacity table signify?

A red asterisk (*) next to a population figure in the megacity table indicates that the specific urban area does not meet the 10 million threshold to be officially classified as a megacity according to the primary definition.

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Defining the Megacity

Population Threshold

A megacity is characterized as a vast urban center, typically defined by a total population exceeding ten million inhabitants. This threshold is widely recognized, with organizations like the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) adopting this criterion in their global urban assessments.

Global Perspective

The concept of a megacity is crucial for understanding global urbanization trends. These immense urban agglomerations are focal points of economic activity, cultural exchange, and demographic shifts, profoundly influencing regional and international development patterns.

Varying Metrics

While the 10 million population mark is common, definitions can vary. Some sources suggest a minimum threshold of five to eight million people, coupled with a significant population density, indicating a more integrated urban system rather than just a large city.

The Urban Metric System

A Standardized Approach

Recognizing the inconsistencies in national urban definitions, the Urban Metric System (UMS) was conceived to provide a standardized method for delineating urban areas and calculating their populations. This system aims to enable more reliable comparisons across different regions and time periods.

Methodology

UMS employs vector field calculations based on the assumption that inhabitants and jobs exert attractive and repulsive forces. The net force is modeled using a formula incorporating distance and a single parameter ($\beta$), allowing for consistent application across diverse urban structures.

UMS Classification

The UMS categorizes urban areas based on the value of its parameter $\beta$, ranging from 'Central city' to 'World system'. 'Patropolises', which are equivalent to megacities, correspond to a specific $\beta$ value, indicating a substantial scale of urban development.

Category	Distance at which attractive force = repulsive force	Value of $\beta$
Central city	10 km	6
Agglomeration	20 km	11
Metropolis	40 km	21
Patropolis	80 km	41
Megalopolis	160 km	81
Urban system	320 km	161
Urban macrosystem	640 km	321
Continental system	1,280 km	641
Intercontinental system	2,560 km	1,281
World system	5,120 km	2,561

Prominent Megacities

Global Distribution

Megacities are concentrated globally, with a significant presence in Asia, particularly in China and India. Other regions with multiple megacities include South America, North America, Europe, and Africa, reflecting diverse patterns of urbanization and economic development.

Population Estimates

Population figures for megacities vary considerably among sources due to differing methodologies and definitions of urban agglomerations versus metropolitan areas. This table presents estimates from various reputable organizations, highlighting these discrepancies.

Megacity Population Estimates (Approximate)
Megacity	Image	Country	Region	Estimated Population
Megacity	Image	Country	Region	Citypopulation.de (2025)	Demographia (2023)	GHSL (2024)	UN DESA (2018)	OECD (2020)
Bangalore		India	South Asia	14,700,000	15,257,000	15,178,533	11,440,000	14,253,019
Bangkok		Thailand	Southeast Asia	21,800,000	18,884,000	19,048,032	10,156,000	18,601,400
Beijing		China	East Asia	21,500,000	18,883,000	18,150,576	19,618,000	20,738,738
Bogotá		Colombia	South America	10,600,000	10,252,000	10,419,361	10,574,000	10,544,590
Buenos Aires		Argentina	South America	16,800,000	15,748,000	14,179,912	14,967,000	14,590,526
Cairo		Egypt	North Africa	22,800,000	22,679,000	25,230,325	20,076,000	27,925,433
Changsha		China	East Asia	11,500,000	5,065,000*	3,246,971*	4,345,000*	4,009,195*
Chengdu		China	East Asia	18,100,000	15,016,000	5,609,627*	8,813,000*	9,768,500*
Chennai		India	South Asia	12,900,000	11,570,000	11,466,400	10,456,000	11,528,915
Chongqing		China	East Asia	12,900,000	12,653,000	8,449,690*	14,838,000	8,913,804*
Delhi		India	South Asia	35,700,000	31,190,000	31,422,508	28,514,000	33,495,554
Dhaka		Bangladesh	South Asia	23,100,000	19,134,000	37,307,160	19,578,000	22,762,988
Dongguan		China	East Asia	Combined with Guangzhou	10,753,000	Combined with Guangzhou	7,360,000*	Combined with Guangzhou
Guangzhou		China	East Asia	72,700,000	27,119,000	42,987,704	12,638,000	16,650,322
Hangzhou		China	East Asia	14,600,000	9,618,000*	6,387,064*	7,236,000*	9,013,951*
Ho Chi Minh City		Vietnam	Southeast Asia	14,300,000	14,953,000	14,557,830	8,145,000*	14,247,593
Hyderabad		India	South Asia	11,700,000	9,797,000*	9,455,230*	9,482,000*	9,706,886*
Istanbul		Turkey	Europe / West Asia	16,000,000	14,441,000	14,210,222	14,751,000	14,693,269
Jakarta		Indonesia	Southeast Asia	29,500,000	35,386,000	40,545,126	10,517,000	32,513,588
Jieyang		China	East Asia	Combined with Shantou*	2,516,000*	10,579,303	—	13,891,202
Johannesburg		South Africa	Southern Africa	14,800,000	15,551,000	8,592,843*	5,486,000*	9,497,036*
Karachi		Pakistan	South Asia	21,000,000	20,249,000	21,031,703	15,400,000	18,916,709
Kinshasa		DR Congo	Central Africa	16,300,000	13,493,000	12,945,683	13,171,000	10,077,694
Kolkata		India	South Asia	17,900,000	21,747,000	23,314,585	14,681,000	24,106,859
Lagos		Nigeria	West Africa	21,300,000	14,540,000	12,486,045	13,463,000	12,642,198
Lahore		Pakistan	South Asia	14,600,000	13,504,000	14,305,060	11,738,000	15,696,939
Lima		Peru	South America	12,000,000	10,556,000	10,828,104	10,391,000	10,496,389
London		United Kingdom	Europe	15,100,000	10,803,000	10,408,333	9,046,000*	13,475,297
Los Angeles		United States	North America	17,100,000	15,587,000	13,474,333	12,458,000	16,206,529
Luanda		Angola	Central Africa	9,650,000*	10,914,000	11,672,134	7,774,000*	10,212,263
Metro Manila		Philippines	Southeast Asia	27,800,000	24,156,000	25,921,189	13,482,000	27,327,889
Mexico City		Mexico	North America	25,400,000	21,905,000	17,639,164	21,581,000	19,229,491
Moscow		Russia	Europe	18,800,000	17,878,000	14,384,082	12,410,000	17,217,606
Mumbai		India	South Asia	27,600,000	25,189,000	20,453,270	19,980,000	23,435,141
Nagoya		Japan	East Asia	10,500,000	9,439,000*	7,721,742*	9,507,000*	9,853,994*
New York City		United States	North America	21,800,000	21,396,000	14,197,659	18,819,000	20,106,617
Osaka		Japan	East Asia	17,700,000	14,916,000	12,653,994	19,281,000	16,866,788
Paris		France	Europe	11,500,000	11,108,000	9,328,385*	10,901,000	11,249,025
Rhine-Ruhr		Germany	Europe	10,900,000	6,769,000*	—	—	—
Rio de Janeiro		Brazil	South America	13,600,000	12,306,000	9,853,693*	13,293,000	11,068,999
São Paulo		Brazil	South America	22,600,000	21,486,000	19,485,158	21,650,000	21,671,857
Seoul		South Korea	East Asia	25,200,000	23,225,000	22,261,692	9,963,000*	25,199,125
Shanghai		China	East Asia	41,600,000	24,042,000	30,678,616	25,582,000	30,504,083
Shenzhen		China	East Asia	Combined with Guangzhou	17,778,000	Combined with Guangzhou	11,908,000	Combined with Guangzhou
Surabaya		Indonesia	Southeast Asia	5,950,000	6,556,000	6,856,993	—	10,695,358
Suzhou		China	East Asia	Combined with Shanghai	6,091,000*	11,540,430	6,339,000*	13,458,006
Taipei		Taiwan	East Asia	10,100,000	9,662,000*	9,686,521*	—	10,048,037
Tehran		Iran	West Asia	16,800,000	13,382,000	9,363,124*	8,896,000*	13,563,316
Tianjin		China	East Asia	11,700,000	10,047,000	7,330,648*	13,215,000	8,963,397*
Tokyo		Japan	East Asia	41,200,000	37,785,000	33,155,907	37,468,000	36,697,549
Wuhan		China	East Asia	12,600,000	10,353,000	8,079,484*	8,176,000*	8,947,812*
Xiamen		China	East Asia	15,400,000	5,253,000*	1,676,987*	3,585,000*	4,261,898*
Xi'an		China	East Asia	13,400,000	12,211,000	5,298,991*	7,444,000*	6,818,858*
Zhengzhou		China	East Asia	10,300,000	11,068,000	5,126,112*	4,940,000*	6,381,637*

Historical Evolution

Early Urban Centers

Historically, cities like ancient Rome served as massive population centers, albeit with different definitions and scales compared to modern megacities. Rome, during its peak, was the largest city in the world, influencing vast territories.

Coining the Term

The term "megacity" gained traction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Urbanist Janice Perlman popularized its use in the 1970s to describe the phenomenon of extremely large urban agglomerations, with the United Nations later standardizing the population threshold.

Modern Growth Patterns

The 20th century witnessed unprecedented urban population growth. In 1950, only New York City exceeded 10 million inhabitants. By 2007, this number had surged to 468 cities over one million, with 27 megacities, predominantly in Asia, reflecting rapid global urbanization.

The global urban population has dramatically increased, with projections indicating that by 2030, 60% of the world's population will reside in cities. This growth is most pronounced in developing nations across Asia and Africa. Consequently, megacities are becoming increasingly numerous and populous, presenting both opportunities and significant challenges for urban planning and governance.

Contemporary Challenges

Slums and Informal Settlements

A significant portion of megacity populations often resides in slums or informal settlements. These areas frequently lack adequate housing, sanitation, and basic services, leading to public health issues and social inequalities. Despite a decrease in the proportion of slum dwellers globally, the absolute numbers continue to rise due to rapid urban migration.

Crime and Security

High population densities and socioeconomic disparities within megacities can contribute to elevated crime rates. Issues such as organized crime and gang activity are often concentrated in densely populated, less affluent areas, posing significant challenges to public safety and security.

Homelessness

Megacities frequently grapple with substantial homeless populations. The definition and management of homelessness vary globally, with strategies like "Housing First" initiatives being implemented to address the issue, though complexities remain in their successful long-term application.

Traffic Congestion

Traffic congestion is a pervasive issue in megacities, characterized by slower speeds, extended commute times, increased pollution, and economic losses. The Texas Transportation Institute estimated billions of dollars in lost productivity and wasted fuel annually due to congestion in major metropolitan areas.

Urban Sprawl

Urban sprawl, defined by low-density, car-dependent development on the urban fringe, is a common characteristic. This pattern can lead to longer commutes, increased infrastructure costs, and segregation of land uses, impacting quality of life and environmental sustainability.

Gentrification

Gentrification involves socioeconomic shifts where wealthier populations move into less affluent urban areas, leading to rising property values and displacement of lower-income residents. This process can alter the social fabric and land use patterns within megacities.

Air Pollution

Air pollution, particularly smog resulting from vehicle emissions and industrial activities, is a critical environmental concern in many megacities, especially in developing nations. Monitoring networks track pollutants to assess and mitigate these impacts.

Resource Management

The immense scale of megacities necessitates efficient management of energy and material resources. Sustainable development hinges on how these cities obtain, distribute, and utilize electricity, water, fuel, and manage waste, with consumption patterns often correlating with economic development levels.

Megacities in Narrative

Science Fiction Tropes

Megacities are frequently depicted in science fiction, often serving as the backdrop for dystopian narratives. Works like William Gibson's "Neuromancer" and the "Judge Dredd" comic series feature sprawling, often oppressive, urban environments that explore the societal implications of extreme urbanization.

Ecumenopolises

The concept extends to planet-wide cities, or ecumenopolises, such as Trantor in Isaac Asimov's "Foundation" series and Coruscant in the "Star Wars" universe. These fictional settings explore the ultimate scale of urban development and its societal consequences.

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Defining the Megacity ℹ️

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🏠 Homelessness

🚗 Traffic Congestion

🌳 Urban Sprawl

🏢 Gentrification

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Defining the Megacity

Population Threshold

Global Perspective

Varying Metrics

The Urban Metric System

A Standardized Approach

Methodology

UMS Classification

Prominent Megacities

Global Distribution

Population Estimates

Historical Evolution

Early Urban Centers

Coining the Term

Modern Growth Patterns

Contemporary Challenges

Slums and Informal Settlements

Crime and Security

Homelessness

Traffic Congestion

Urban Sprawl

Gentrification

Air Pollution

Resource Management

Megacities in Narrative

Science Fiction Tropes

Ecumenopolises

Teacher's Corner

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References

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