What were the primary dates defining the Mexican-American War?

The Mexican-American War officially spanned from April 25, 1846, to February 2, 1848, lasting for approximately one year, nine months, one week, and one day.

What territorial changes resulted from the Mexican-American War?

The war concluded with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, wherein Mexico ceded the vast territory known as the Mexican Cession to the United States. This included present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming. Mexico received $15 million and the assumption of $3.25 million in debts owed to U.S. citizens in exchange.

Which nations were the primary belligerents in the Mexican-American War?

The primary belligerents were the United States and Mexico. Mexico was represented by the Second Federal Republic of Mexico during the conflict.

Who were the key commanders and leaders for the United States during the Mexican-American War?

Key American leaders included President James K. Polk, Vice President George M. Dallas, Secretary of War William L. Marcy, and military commanders such as Winfield Scott, Zachary Taylor, John E. Wool, Robert F. Stockton, and John C. Frémont. George Bancroft also served as Secretary of the Navy.

Who were the principal commanders and leaders for Mexico during the conflict?

Mexico's leadership during the war included presidents Antonio López de Santa Anna, Mariano Paredes, Manuel de la Peña y Peña, and Pedro de Anaya. Military commanders featured figures like Mariano Arista, Pedro de Ampudia, Nicolás Bravo, and José de Urrea.

What was the approximate strength of the forces involved in the Mexican-American War?

The United States fielded approximately 73,532 troops throughout the war. Mexico's forces were estimated to be around 40,000.

What were the total casualties and losses for the United States in the war?

The United States suffered a total of 18,130 casualties. Of these, 1,733 were killed in action, 4,152 were wounded, 11,550 died from disease, and 695 went missing.

What were the estimated total casualties and losses for Mexico in the war?

Mexico's total casualties were estimated at 35,000, with approximately 5,000 killed and 20,000 wounded. An additional 10,000 were listed as missing. Some sources suggest the total Mexican death toll, including civilians, may have reached 25,000.

What was the immediate cause of the Mexican-American War?

The war was triggered by the U.S. annexation of Texas in 1845, which Mexico still considered its territory due to its refusal to recognize the Treaties of Velasco. The dispute over the southern border of Texas, specifically whether it lay at the Rio Grande or the Nueces River, also played a crucial role.

How did the issue of slavery influence the annexation of Texas and the lead-up to the war?

Sectional politics regarding slavery in the United States had previously prevented the annexation of Texas. Admitting Texas as a slave state would have upset the balance of power between free and slave states in the U.S. Congress, making the annexation a contentious issue.

What was James K. Polk's platform in the 1844 presidential election that related to territorial expansion?

James K. Polk was elected on a platform advocating for the expansion of U.S. territory into Oregon, California, and Texas. His commitment to acquiring these lands 'by any means' set the stage for the subsequent conflict.

What was the U.S. diplomatic strategy regarding California and the disputed territories before the war?

President Polk sent John Slidell as a secret representative to Mexico City with an offer of $25 million to purchase the disputed Texas territory up to the Rio Grande, as well as California and the intervening lands. This offer was refused by the Mexican government.

What was the Thornton Affair, and how did it contribute to the outbreak of war?

The Thornton Affair occurred on April 25, 1846, when Mexican cavalry attacked a 70-man U.S. patrol led by Captain Seth Thornton in the disputed territory north of the Rio Grande. This engagement, resulting in American casualties, was used by President Polk as justification to convince Congress to declare war.

How did Mexico's political instability affect its ability to prepare for and conduct the war?

Mexico experienced significant political instability, with the presidency changing hands multiple times in 1846 alone. This internal turmoil weakened its government and military, hindering its capacity to effectively defend against the U.S. invasion and manage its resources.

What were the primary challenges faced by the Mexican Army during the war?

The Mexican Army was characterized by its weakness, divisions between factions, and insufficient state contributions. Many soldiers were poorly trained, ill-equipped, and underpaid, leading to low morale and desertions. Political interference and internal conflicts also significantly hampered its effectiveness.

What advantages did the U.S. Army possess over the Mexican Army?

The U.S. Army generally had better training and discipline, especially among its regular officers. It also benefited from superior artillery, more modern weaponry like rifles and revolvers in some units, and a more stable political and economic foundation, which translated into better logistics and troop support.

How did the U.S. military utilize 'flying artillery' during the war?

The U.S. Army employed 'flying artillery,' which referred to mobile light artillery units whose crews rode horses into battle. This tactic proved highly effective, particularly at the Battle of Palo Alto, due to its speed and devastating impact on Mexican formations.

What role did women, known as 'soldaderas,' play in the Mexican war effort?

Mexican women, known as 'soldaderas,' provided essential support services to the troops, such as cooking and nursing the wounded. While not typically engaging in direct combat, some participated in fighting during key defensive actions, like the defense of Mexico City.

How did American women contribute to the war effort on the home front?

American women on the home front supported the war by making patriotic crafts, protesting or advocating for the war through journalism, and managing businesses while their husbands were enlisted. Some, like Ann Chase, even acted as spies.

What was the significance of the Kearny Code established in New Mexico?

After securing Santa Fe without a fight, General Stephen W. Kearny established a temporary civilian government and implemented the Kearny Code. This code served as a temporary legal system for the newly acquired New Mexico Territory, outlining governance and laws.

What was the Taos Revolt, and what were its key events?

The Taos Revolt was an uprising by New Mexicans and Pueblo allies against the occupying U.S. forces in January 1847. Key events included the killing of Governor Charles Bent and other Americans, and subsequent battles where U.S. forces suppressed the revolt, notably at Taos Pueblo.

Describe the Bear Flag Revolt and its connection to the U.S. conquest of California.

The Bear Flag Revolt was an uprising by American settlers in Sonoma, California, in June 1846, aimed at achieving independence from Mexican rule. This revolt was supported by John C. Frémont's U.S. Army topographical expedition, and its participants later joined Frémont's California Battalion, contributing to the U.S. conquest of California.

What was the significance of the Treaty of Cahuenga?

The Treaty of Cahuenga, signed on January 13, 1847, marked the end of armed resistance in California. It was an agreement between Frémont's California Battalion and Californio leaders, leading to the surrender of Mexican forces in the region.

What was the strategic importance of General Winfield Scott's amphibious landing at Veracruz?

Scott's landing at Veracruz in March 1847 was the first major amphibious operation in U.S. history. Its strategic importance lay in establishing a beachhead for the invasion of Mexico's heartland, directly targeting the capital and aiming to force a swift end to the war.

How did the Battle of Cerro Gordo impact the Mexican military leadership?

The Mexican army's defeat at the Battle of Cerro Gordo on April 18, 1847, led to significant casualties and the capture of much of Santa Anna's artillery. This defeat demoralized the Mexican forces and contributed to Santa Anna's later removal from command.

What were the key terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo?

Signed on February 2, 1848, the treaty ended the war. Mexico recognized the U.S. annexation of Texas and ceded the Mexican Cession territory. In return, the U.S. paid Mexico $15 million and assumed $3.25 million in Mexican debts owed to U.S. citizens.

How did the Mexican-American War contribute to the tensions leading to the American Civil War?

The war inflamed sectional tensions in the U.S. over the expansion of slavery into the newly acquired territories. Debates surrounding the Wilmot Proviso and the balance of power between free and slave states intensified, contributing to the eventual outbreak of the Civil War.

What was the 'All-Mexico Movement,' and why did it ultimately fail?

The All-Mexico Movement was a proposal by some U.S. expansionists to annex the entirety of Mexico following the war. It failed due to significant opposition based on racial concerns, fears of undermining republican institutions, and the practical difficulties of incorporating such a large, diverse population.

What impact did the war have on the military careers of future Civil War leaders?

Many officers who served in the Mexican-American War, such as Ulysses S. Grant, Robert E. Lee, William T. Sherman, and Stonewall Jackson, gained valuable combat experience. This experience shaped their leadership and tactical understanding, influencing their roles in the subsequent American Civil War.

How did U.S. journalism evolve during the Mexican-American War?

The war was the first major conflict extensively covered by mass media, particularly the penny press. Journalists provided independent news coverage from the front lines, influencing public opinion and creating widespread interest and excitement about the conflict.

What was the significance of the Saint Patrick's Battalion (San Patricios)?

The Saint Patrick's Battalion was a unit composed primarily of Irish and German Catholic immigrants who deserted the U.S. Army to fight for Mexico. They were motivated by factors like mistreatment or sympathy for fellow Catholics. Many were captured and executed as deserters after the Battle of Churubusco.

How did the war affect Mexico's national identity and political landscape?

The war resulted in a significant loss of territory and national prestige for Mexico. It exacerbated internal political divisions and led to a period of introspection as Mexican leaders sought to understand and address the causes of their defeat.

What is the legacy of the Niños Héroes in Mexico?

The Niños Héroes (Boy Heroes) are remembered as military cadets who died defending Chapultepec Castle during the Battle of Chapultepec. Their sacrifice became a powerful symbol of patriotism and national identity, commemorated through monuments and annual ceremonies.

How did the Mexican-American War influence the concept of Manifest Destiny in the United States?

The war's successful outcome, particularly the acquisition of vast territories, reinforced the belief in Manifest Destiny. It was seen by many Americans as divine providence guiding the nation to expand its dominion across the North American continent.

What was the Mexican Cession, and what was its approximate size?

The Mexican Cession refers to the territory surrendered by Mexico to the United States following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This vast area, comprising over 529,000 square miles, significantly expanded the United States westward to the Pacific Ocean.

How did the war impact the lives of Mexicans living in the territories annexed by the U.S.?

Many Mexicans in the annexed territories experienced a loss of civil and political rights. Despite treaty promises of citizenship, they often faced discrimination, exclusion from voting, and loss of land, particularly indigenous peoples who were subjected to violence and displacement.

What role did the U.S. Navy play in the Pacific Coast campaign?

The U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron blockaded California ports, seized key locations like Monterey and San Francisco, and supported land operations. Commodore John D. Sloat and later Commodore Robert F. Stockton were instrumental in securing American control over California.

What was the significance of the Battle of San Pasqual?

The Battle of San Pasqual, fought in December 1846, was a notable engagement in the California campaign where Californio forces led by Andrés Pico inflicted significant casualties on Kearny's U.S. Army. Although a tactical victory for the Californios, it did not prevent the eventual U.S. conquest of California.

How did the Mexican government's policy of allowing U.S. settlement in Texas contribute to the conflict?

Mexico's policy aimed to create a buffer against Native American raids, but the influx of American settlers, many of whom brought enslaved people and resisted Mexican laws like the abolition of slavery, led to cultural and political friction, ultimately contributing to the Texas Revolution and subsequent U.S. annexation.

What was the primary reason for the U.S. government's interest in acquiring California?

The U.S. sought California primarily to thwart potential British interests in the region and to gain a crucial port on the Pacific Ocean. This acquisition was seen as vital for expanding American trade and influence on the Pacific coast.

How did the U.S. Army's tactics evolve during the Battle of Monterrey?

Initially, U.S. troops employed frontal assaults that were ineffective against Monterrey's defenses. Learning from Texan soldiers' experience, they adapted to urban warfare by using 'mouse-holing' tactics—breaching walls and roofs to fight house-to-house—which proved successful.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Buena Vista?

The Battle of Buena Vista, fought in February 1847, was a major engagement where Zachary Taylor's smaller U.S. force held off a much larger Mexican army led by Santa Anna. Despite nearly being routed, the U.S. troops managed to maintain their position, contributing to Taylor's presidential campaign.

What was the 'Spot Resolutions' resolution proposed by Abraham Lincoln?

The 'Spot Resolutions' were a series of propositions introduced by Abraham Lincoln in the U.S. House of Representatives, challenging President Polk's justification for the war. Lincoln questioned the exact location where American blood was supposedly shed on American soil, demanding specific evidence.

How did the Mexican-American War impact the U.S. military's approach to logistics?

The war provided invaluable training in logistics for future leaders like Ulysses S. Grant. He learned to sustain large armies in the field, far from supply depots, a skill that proved crucial during the American Civil War.

What was the general sentiment of U.S. soldiers regarding the war's justification, according to Ulysses S. Grant?

Ulysses S. Grant, despite serving in the war, expressed strong opposition to it, viewing it as unjust and driven by a desire for territorial expansion. He believed the U.S. transgressed and was subsequently punished by the Civil War.

How did the Mexican-American War affect the development of U.S. journalism?

The war marked a significant development in U.S. journalism, being the first conflict extensively covered by mass media like the penny press. Journalists' dispatches provided the public with direct accounts of warfare, influencing public opinion and fostering national unity around the conflict.

What was the outcome of the Siege of Veracruz for the U.S. forces?

The Siege of Veracruz, which followed Scott's amphibious landing, resulted in the surrender of the Mexican forces after 12 days. While U.S. troops suffered casualties and exposure to yellow fever, the capture of Veracruz provided a crucial port for the subsequent advance into Mexico's heartland.

What role did disease play in the Mexican-American War?

Disease, particularly yellow fever, significantly impacted both armies. It caused a substantial number of deaths, especially among U.S. troops after the capture of Veracruz, and was a factor Santa Anna hoped to leverage by delaying battle.

What was the significance of the Battle of Chapultepec?

The Battle of Chapultepec involved the storming of a military academy in Mexico City. It is remembered for the legend of the Niños Héroes, six cadets who reportedly died defending the castle, becoming national heroes in Mexico.

How did the U.S. government handle the land grants made by the Mexican government in the ceded territories?

The U.S. Senate modified the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo by striking out Article X, which had conceded the legitimacy of land grants made by the Mexican government. A subsequent protocol clarified that original Article IX rights would still be conferred, but the status of many land grants remained a point of contention.

What was the primary impact of the Mexican-American War on Mexico's territorial extent?

The war led to a drastic reduction in Mexico's territory. Mexico lost over half of its land, approximately 900,000 square miles, including the significant Mexican Cession and later the Gadsden Purchase, drastically altering its geographical and political landscape.

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War Overview

Conflict Overview

The Mexican–American War, known in the United States as the Mexican War, was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from April 25, 1846, to February 2, 1848. This war was a direct consequence of the U.S. annexation of Texas in 1845, a territory Mexico still considered its own following the Texas Revolution.

Territorial Stakes

The conflict centered on the disputed boundary of Texas, claimed by both nations as the Rio Grande. The war ultimately resulted in the Mexican Cession, where Mexico ceded vast territories, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming, to the United States for $15 million.

Belligerents

The primary belligerents were the United States, seeking territorial expansion and asserting its "Manifest Destiny," and Mexico, a nation struggling with internal instability and defending its sovereignty. The war significantly impacted both nations' political landscapes and national identities.

Historical Context

Mexico Post-Independence

Following its independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico faced profound instability. Economic devastation from the war, frequent changes in government, and the powerful influence of the military and Catholic Church weakened the nation. This internal fragility left Mexico vulnerable to external pressures and unable to effectively govern its vast northern territories.

U.S. Expansionism

Fueled by the ideology of "Manifest Destiny," the United States harbored ambitions for territorial expansion. President James K. Polk's administration actively pursued the acquisition of Texas, California, and other Mexican territories. This expansionist drive was intertwined with sectional politics over slavery and the desire to project U.S. power and influence.

Northern Frontier Instability

Mexico's northern frontier was largely ungoverned and vulnerable to raids by Native American tribes like the Comanche and Apache. The Mexican government's inability to secure these regions, coupled with internal conflicts, created a power vacuum that facilitated U.S. encroachment and settlement.

Prelude to Conflict

The Nueces Strip Dispute

The core dispute lay in the boundary of Texas. While the Republic of Texas and the U.S. claimed the Rio Grande as the border, Mexico maintained it was the more northerly Nueces River. Diplomatic efforts by the U.S. to purchase territory were rebuffed by Mexico, which viewed such proposals as a national insult.

Polk's Strategic Moves

President Polk deployed General Zachary Taylor's forces to the disputed territory, escalating tensions. Simultaneously, U.S. agents engaged with Californios regarding potential independence or annexation, while John C. Frémont's expedition in California further heightened Mexican suspicions.

Mexico's Political Turmoil

Mexico's political landscape was highly volatile, with frequent presidential changes. National honor and territorial integrity were paramount, making any negotiation over land cession politically untenable. Conservative factions opposed liberal reforms, further fragmenting the nation's ability to mount a unified defense.

War Preparation

Mexican Military Challenges

The Mexican Army suffered from severe deficiencies: it was poorly trained, ill-equipped, and politically divided. Internal strife often superseded external threats, with frequent changes in leadership and a lack of consistent military strategy. Many soldiers were conscripts with low morale.

U.S. Military Advantages

Despite relying heavily on volunteers, the U.S. Army benefited from better training, more professional officers (many with West Point education), and superior weaponry, including advanced artillery and firearms. The nation's industrial capacity also supported the war effort more effectively.

Political Divisions

While Mexico was plagued by internal factionalism, the U.S. faced its own divisions, primarily over the expansion of slavery into new territories. However, these divisions generally remained within the established governmental framework, unlike Mexico's military interventions in politics.

Key Events

Outbreak of Hostilities

The conflict officially began on April 25, 1846, when Mexican cavalry attacked a U.S. patrol in the disputed territory north of the Rio Grande—the Thornton Affair. This incident provided President Polk the justification needed to ask Congress for a declaration of war.

Texas Campaign Battles

Early engagements included the Siege of Fort Texas and the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. The U.S. Army, utilizing superior artillery and tactics, secured victories that allowed them to advance into Mexican territory.

Western Campaigns

Simultaneously, U.S. forces secured control of California through the Bear Flag Revolt and subsequent military actions. New Mexico was also occupied with minimal resistance, highlighting the weakness of Mexican control in its northern provinces.

Mexico City Campaign

Led by General Winfield Scott, the U.S. Army executed a successful amphibious landing at Veracruz and marched inland, culminating in the capture of Mexico City in September 1847. This decisive campaign effectively ended major military operations.

Role of Women

Mexican Women

Mexican women, known as soldaderas, provided crucial support to the army, performing domestic duties and sometimes participating directly in combat. On the home front, they contributed through mourning rituals, artistic expressions of loss, and even espionage, demonstrating resilience amidst national turmoil.

American Women

American women also played vital roles, offering battlefield support, managing businesses in occupied territories, and engaging in espionage. Journalists like Anne Royall and Jane Swisshelm used their platforms to voice opinions on the war, contributing to public discourse and representing women's perspectives.

Consequences and Legacy

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Signed on February 2, 1848, this treaty formally ended the war. Mexico ceded significant territory (the Mexican Cession) and recognized the Rio Grande as Texas's border. The U.S. paid $15 million and assumed $3.25 million in debts owed to U.S. citizens.

U.S. Impact

The war fueled American patriotism and territorial expansion but intensified sectional debates over slavery, contributing to the eventual American Civil War. Many military leaders gained valuable experience that shaped their roles in the Civil War.

Mexican Impact

For Mexico, the war resulted in a devastating loss of territory, national prestige, and human life. It exacerbated political instability and economic hardship, leaving deep scars on the nation's psyche and development.

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References

(Spanish: guerra de Estados Unidos-MÃ©xico, guerra mexicano-estadounidense). Variations include U.S.âMexican War, the U.S.âMexico War.

DeLay, Brian (Feb 2007), "Independent Indians and the U.S. Mexican War", The American Historical Review, Vol. 112, No. 2, p. 35.

"The Borderlands on the Eve of War" (). The U.S.âMexican War. PBS.

Lyman, George D. John Marsh, Pioneer: The Life Story of a Trail-Blazer on Six Frontiers, pp. 258â262, The Chautauqua Press, Chautauqua, New York, 1931.

Winkley, John W. Dr. John Marsh, Wilderness Scout, pp. 66â69, The Parthenon Press, Nashville, Tennessee, 1962.

JesÃºs F. de la Teja, "Texas Secession" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, 1403â1404.

Douglas W. Richmond, "Vicente Guerrero" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 617.

Mary Lee Spence, and Donald Jackson, The Expeditions of John Charles Fremont: The Bear Flag Revolt and the Court-Martial. U of Illinois Press, 1973.

Miguel E. Soto, "The Monarchist Conspiracy and the Mexican War" in Essays on the Mexican War ed by Wayne Cutler; Texas A&M University Press. 1986. pp. 66â67.

quoted in Carol and Thomas Christensen, The U.S.âMexican War. Companion to the Public Television Series, The U.S.âMexican War, 1846â48. San Francisco: Bay Books 1998, p. 138.

Tenenbaum, Barbara. "Mexico" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 4, p. 10. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.

Foos, Paul. A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair: Soldiers and Social Conflict during the MexicanâAmerican War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2002.

Tucker, Spencer. U.S. Leadership in Wartime: Clashes, Controversy, and Compromise, Volume 1, p. 249.

Faragher, John Mack, et al., eds. Out Of Many: A History of the American People. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, 2006.

quoted in Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico p. 255. The negotiations are discussed pp. 253â254

Giddings, Joshua Reed. Speeches in Congress [1841â1852], J.P. Jewett and Company, 1853, p. 17.

Richards, Leonard L. Slave Power and Southern Domination 1780â1860. 2000 pp. 152â153.

Silbey, Joel H. Storm over Texas: The Annexation Controversy and the Road to the Civil War. 2005 130â131

Editorial, Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 1846, quoted in Loveman, Brian. No Higher Law: American Foreign Policy and the Western Hemisphere since 1776. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2010, p. 65.

Lawrence Delbert Cress, "Introduction", Dispatches from the Mexican War, Norman: the University of Oklahoma Press 1999, p. 8.

George Wilkins Kendall, Dispatches from the Mexican War, edited by Larence Delbert Cress. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1999.

Ron Tyler. "A Great American Book: The War between the United States and Mexico, Illustrated" in Artes de MÃ©xico. No. 80, "Carl Nebel: Nineteenth-Century Itinerant Painter", August 2006, pp. 77â80.

K. Jack Bauer, The Mexican war, 1846â1848. 1974. Republished by University of Nebraska Press 1992, pp. 108â109.

quoted in Brian Loveman, No Higher Law: American Foreign Policy and the Western Hemisphere Since 1776. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2010, p. 70.

Occupation of Mexico City

Mexico City - Occupation of Mexico City

Executive Document, No. 60, House of Representatives, first Session of the thirtieth Congress, pp. 1028, 1032.

Schoultz, Lars. Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1998, p. 34

Griswold el Castillo, Richard War's End: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo PBS, 2006.

Chernow, Ron. Grant. New York: Penguin Press 2017, p. 49

Van Wagenen, Michael Scott. "USâMexican War Veterans and the Congressional Pension Fight." Military History of the West 40 (2010).

"Mexican War Veterans, A Complete Roster" Washington D.C.: Brentano's 1887 accessed May 18, 2020

Santoni, Pedro. "U.S.âMexican War" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 1511.

Van Wagenen, Michael. Remembering the Forgotten War: The Enduring Legacies of the U.S.âMexican War. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2012.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Mexican–American War Wikipedia page

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This is not professional historical or military advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional consultation. Always refer to primary sources and consult with qualified historians or experts for specific analyses.

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Manifest Destiny's Crucible

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War Overview

⚔️ Conflict Overview

🗺️ Territorial Stakes

🇺🇸🇲🇽 Belligerents

Historical Context

🏛️ Mexico Post-Independence

📈 U.S. Expansionism

🛡️ Northern Frontier Instability

Prelude to Conflict

📍 The Nueces Strip Dispute

🇺🇸 Polk's Strategic Moves

🇲🇽 Mexico's Political Turmoil

War Preparation

🛡️ Mexican Military Challenges

🇺🇸 U.S. Military Advantages

🏛️ Political Divisions

Key Events

💥 Outbreak of Hostilities

⚔️ Texas Campaign Battles

🗺️ Western Campaigns

🏛️ Mexico City Campaign

Role of Women

🇲🇽 Mexican Women

🇺🇸 American Women

Consequences and Legacy

📜 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

🇺🇸 U.S. Impact

🇲🇽 Mexican Impact

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Conflict Overview

Territorial Stakes

Belligerents

Mexico Post-Independence

U.S. Expansionism

Northern Frontier Instability

The Nueces Strip Dispute

Polk's Strategic Moves

Mexico's Political Turmoil

Mexican Military Challenges

U.S. Military Advantages

Political Divisions

Outbreak of Hostilities

Texas Campaign Battles

Western Campaigns

Mexico City Campaign

Mexican Women

American Women

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

U.S. Impact

Mexican Impact

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