What is the primary subject of the article "Napoleon Crossing the Alps"?

The article "Napoleon Crossing the Alps" focuses on a series of five oil on canvas equestrian portraits of Napoleon Bonaparte, created by the French artist Jacques-Louis David between 1801 and 1805. These paintings depict an idealized representation of Napoleon's actual crossing of the Alps via the Great St Bernard Pass in May 1800.

What is the French title of the painting series discussed in the article?

The French title for the painting series is "Le Premier Consul franchissant les Alpes au col du Grand Saint-Bernard", which translates to "The First Consul crossing the Alps at the Great Saint Bernard Pass."

Who initially commissioned the first painting in the series, and what was its intended purpose?

The original painting was commissioned by the King of Spain. Its purpose was to serve as a token of the newly re-established diplomatic relationship between Spain and France, intended to hang in the Royal Palace of Madrid.

What historical event does Jacques-Louis David's painting series, "Napoleon Crossing the Alps," aim to represent?

The painting series represents an idealized view of Napoleon Bonaparte's crossing of the Alps with his army through the Great St Bernard Pass in May 1800. This military maneuver was undertaken to reinforce French troops in Italy and recapture territory lost to the Austrians.

What was Napoleon's strategic goal when he led his army across the Alps in the spring of 1800?

Napoleon's strategic goal was to reinforce the French troops already in Italy and to retake the territory that had been seized by the Austrians in the preceding years. He aimed to achieve surprise by taking the trans-Alpine route.

How did Napoleon's crossing of the Alps in reality differ from the depiction in David's painting?

In reality, Napoleon crossed the Alps in pleasant weather and was guided by a mule driver on a mule. David's painting, however, portrays Napoleon calmly riding a rearing, fiery steed, which is a highly idealized and propagandistic representation.

What was the outcome of Napoleon's military campaign in Italy following the Alpine crossing?

Following the Alpine crossing, Napoleon's Reserve Army engaged in battles, including a decisive victory at the Battle of Marengo on June 14, 1800. This victory was crucial for securing French control in Italy and consolidating Napoleon's political power as First Consul.

Why did Napoleon request additional versions of the painting from Jacques-Louis David?

After the successful Italian campaign and the subsequent rapprochement with Charles IV of Spain, Napoleon requested three additional versions of the painting. These were intended for the Château de Saint-Cloud, the library of Les Invalides, and the Royal Palace of Milan, reflecting his growing status and desire for widespread representation.

How many versions of the painting "Napoleon Crossing the Alps" did Jacques-Louis David create, and where are they located?

Jacques-Louis David created five versions of the painting. The original is at the Château de Malmaison, a second version is at Charlottenburg Palace in Berlin, the third is at the Palace of Versailles, the fourth is at the Österreichische Galerie Belvedere in Vienna, and the fifth was kept by David until his death and is now also at the Palace of Versailles.

Describe the journey of the original version of the painting after it left Spain.

The original painting remained in Madrid until 1812. It was then taken by Joseph Bonaparte when he fled Spain during the Peninsular War. He brought it to his estate, Point Breeze, in Bordentown, New Jersey, USA. After being passed down through his descendants, it was bequeathed to the museum of the Château de Malmaison in 1949.

What happened to the version of the painting created for the Château de Saint-Cloud?

The version intended for the Château de Saint-Cloud was taken by Prussian soldiers led by von Blücher after Napoleon's fall. They presented it to Frederick William III, King of Prussia, and it is now housed in Charlottenburg Palace in Berlin.

Where is the version of the painting originally intended for Les Invalides currently located?

The version created for Les Invalides was initially put into storage during the Bourbon Restoration. However, in 1837, King Louis-Philippe ordered it to be rehung in the Musée de l'Histoire de France at the Palace of Versailles, where it remains today.

What was the fate of the version created for Milan?

The version delivered to Milan in 1803 was confiscated by the Austrians in 1816. Despite the Milanese people's refusal to give it up, it eventually ended up at the Belvedere palace in Vienna in 1834, and is now part of the Österreichische Galerie Belvedere collection.

What is the history of the fifth version of the painting that David kept?

The fifth version, kept by David until his death in 1825, was exhibited at the Bazar Bonne-Nouvelle in 1846. Later, in 1850, it was given to President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (Napoleon III) by David's daughter and was installed at the Tuileries Palace. In 1979, it was donated to the museum at the Palace of Versailles.

What was Napoleon's initial request regarding his portrayal in the painting, and how did David's preference differ?

Initially, Napoleon requested to be depicted reviewing troops. However, David was keen on creating an equestrian scene. Ultimately, Napoleon agreed to be shown crossing the Alps, but with specific instructions for his portrayal.

Why did Napoleon refuse to sit for Jacques-Louis David for the portrait?

Napoleon refused to sit for David, stating that he disliked sitting and believed the painting should represent his character and genius rather than a precise physical likeness. He argued that the resemblance of great historical figures lies in their spirit, not exact features.

How did Napoleon's refusal to sit impact the style of his portraits?

Napoleon's refusal to sit marked a shift in his portraiture away from realism towards political iconography. Subsequent portraits became more emblematic, focusing on capturing an idealized representation of his persona rather than a literal physical likeness.

What methods did David employ to create the portrait of Napoleon without him sitting for it?

Unable to secure a sitting, David used a bust for Napoleon's features and had his son pose for the posture by climbing a ladder. He borrowed Napoleon's actual uniform and bicorne worn at Marengo and used two different horses as models for the "fiery steed."

What specific horses were used as models for Napoleon's steed in the paintings?

Two horses served as models: a mare named 'la Belle,' which appears in the Charlottenburg version, and the famous grey horse 'Marengo,' which is depicted in the versions at Versailles and Vienna.

What artistic techniques did Jacques-Louis David utilize in painting "Napoleon Crossing the Alps"?

David employed a technique involving a white canvas as the base, avoiding the red or grey undercoats common at the time. He worked in two or three layers: first capturing the outline with an ochre drawing, then applying light touches focusing on light and shade, and finally adding details and smoothing the surface, often with the help of assistants.

How does the depiction of Napoleon's face and expression vary across the different versions of the painting?

In the original Malmaison version, Napoleon's face appears youthful. In the Charlottenburg version, his features are sunken with a hint of a smile. The first Versailles version shows a sterner expression, while the second Versailles version depicts older features, shorter hair, and a faint smile, suggesting it was completed after 1804.

What are some of the key visual differences between the five versions of the painting?

Differences include the color of Napoleon's cloak (orange in Malmaison, red in Charlottenburg, orange-red in the second Versailles version), the horse's color and tack (piebald with martingale in Malmaison, chestnut without martingale in Charlottenburg, dappled grey in Versailles), the presence of snow, and variations in the details of embroidery and Napoleon's facial expression and age.

What classical influences can be seen in David's "Napoleon Crossing the Alps"?

The painting reflects a neo-classical style, drawing inspiration from classical ideals like the "beautiful ideal" seen in the "Apollo Belvedere" and Jean Broc's "The Death of Hyacinthos." The youthful posture of Napoleon evokes Alexander the Great on Bucephalus, as depicted on his sarcophagus. The rearing horse is influenced by equestrian statues like Falconet's "The Bronze Horseman" and Greek statuary from the Parthenon.

How did David use symbolism in the painting, and what historical figures are mentioned alongside Napoleon?

David used symbolism to portray Napoleon heroically and ideally, rather than through allegorical symbols. Alongside Napoleon, the names Hannibal and Charlemagne are engraved on the rocks in the foreground, referencing other great military leaders who crossed the Alps, thereby elevating Napoleon's status by association.

What was the immediate reception of the first two versions of the painting when exhibited in the Louvre?

When the first two copies were exhibited in the Louvre in June 1801, there was an outcry in the press regarding their purchase. Despite this, the painting quickly gained widespread recognition due to numerous reproductions.

What is the significance of "Napoleon Crossing the Alps" in terms of Napoleon's public image?

The painting became the most commonly reproduced image of Napoleon, solidifying his iconic status. David's work elevated the equestrian portrait genre to its peak, with this particular painting achieving unparalleled celebrity among portraits made during Napoleon's era.

How did the popularity of David's "Napoleon Crossing the Alps" change over time?

Following Napoleon's exile in 1815, the portraits fell out of fashion. However, by the late 1830s, they began to be re-exhibited in art galleries and museums, regaining their prominence.

What prompted Paul Delaroche to create his own version of "Napoleon Crossing the Alps"?

Arthur George Onslow, a collector of Napoleonic items, commented on the implausibility and theatricality of David's painting while visiting the Louvre with Paul Delaroche in 1848. This led Onslow to commission Delaroche to create a more historically accurate version depicting Napoleon on a mule.

What was Paul Delaroche's intention in creating a more realistic depiction of Napoleon crossing the Alps?

Delaroche's intention was not to demean Napoleon but to provide a more accurate, realistic portrayal. Despite admiring Bonaparte, Delaroche believed the historical achievement was not lessened by depicting it in a factual manner, contrasting with David's symbolic heroism.

How did John Everett Millais incorporate David's painting into his work "The Black Brunswicker"?

In his 1860 painting "The Black Brunswicker," Millais included a print of David's "Napoleon Crossing the Alps" hanging on a wall. This served as a visual contrast between David's dramatic, heroic rhetoric and the naturalistic, emotional scenario depicted in Millais' own painting, which shows a soldier leaving for battle against Napoleon.

What does the engraving on the rocks in the foreground of the painting signify?

The engravings on the rocks in the foreground bear the names BONAPARTE, HANNIBAL, and KAROLVS MAGNVS IMP. (Charlemagne). This serves to associate Napoleon with legendary military leaders who also crossed the Alps, thereby enhancing his heroic image through historical comparison.

What is the significance of the date "YEAR IX" or "ANNO X" found on some versions of the painting?

The dates "YEAR IX" (L. DAVID YEAR IX) and "ANNO X" (J.L.DAVID L.ANNO X) refer to the French Republican Calendar. Year IX corresponds to 1800-1801, and Year X corresponds to 1801-1802, indicating the period when these specific versions were created.

Which version of the painting is signed "L.DAVID L.ANNO X"?

The version housed in the Belvedere, Vienna, is signed "J.L.DAVID L.ANNO X." This version is almost identical to the first Versailles version, with the signature and date being a key distinguishing feature.

What does the detail of Napoleon's gesture signify in the painting?

In the painting, Napoleon's right hand gestures towards the mountain summit. This gesture is often interpreted as pointing towards the future or indicating the direction of conquest and triumph, reinforcing the heroic and forward-looking narrative of the artwork.

What role did David's pupils play in the creation of the multiple versions of the painting?

David's pupils assisted in the production of the different versions. Jérôme-Martin Langlois primarily worked on the first two portraits, while George Rouget was responsible for producing the copy intended for Les Invalides.

How is the horse depicted in David's painting, and what does it symbolize?

The horse is dramatically portrayed rearing on its hind legs, with its mane and tail whipped by the wind. This depiction symbolizes power, energy, and the untamed force that Napoleon is mastering, contributing to the overall heroic and dynamic image of the First Consul.

What is the approximate size of the five versions of "Napoleon Crossing the Alps"?

All five versions of the painting are of a similar large scale, measuring approximately 2.6 meters in height by 2.2 meters in width (about 102 inches by 87 inches).

What is the significance of the inclusion of Hannibal and Charlemagne in the painting's composition?

By including Hannibal and Charlemagne, historical figures renowned for crossing the Alps, David strategically placed Napoleon in the company of legendary conquerors. This visual association aimed to legitimize Napoleon's leadership and underscore the magnitude of his achievement by comparing it to epic historical precedents.

What does the article suggest about David's artistic approach to portraiture, particularly after Napoleon's refusal to sit?

The article suggests that after Napoleon refused to sit, David shifted from realism towards political iconography. He focused on capturing Napoleon's character and ideal image, using symbolic representation rather than strict physical accuracy, a departure from traditional portraiture.

What specific elements of Napoleon's attire are accurately depicted based on historical sources?

David was able to borrow Napoleon's actual uniform and bicorne hat worn during the Battle of Marengo. This allowed for a degree of accuracy in depicting these specific items of clothing, even within the idealized composition.

How did the painting contribute to the Neoclassical movement?

David applied the radical neo-classicism he had previously demonstrated to this portrait. While using contemporary costumes, the heroic idealization, the classical references (like Alexander the Great), and the balanced composition align with the principles of Neoclassicism, aiming for clarity, order, and noble simplicity.

What is the "beautiful ideal" mentioned in relation to Napoleon's figure in the painting?

The "beautiful ideal" refers to an aesthetic concept in art that emphasizes idealized physical perfection and harmony, often inspired by classical Greek sculpture. In the context of the painting, it means Napoleon is depicted not just realistically, but as an embodiment of youthful strength, heroism, and classical beauty, similar to figures like the Apollo Belvedere.

What is the role of the "hatnote" at the beginning of the article?

The hatnote at the beginning of the article serves to distinguish the specific painting by Jacques-Louis David from other artworks with similar titles, such as those by Paul Delaroche and Kehinde Wiley, directing readers to the correct subject matter.

What does the "Multiple issues" notice at the top of the article indicate?

The "Multiple issues" notice indicates that the article requires improvement. Specifically, it highlights the need for expansion with translated text from the French Wikipedia article and the addition of more citations to reliable sources for verification.

What is the significance of the image of Alexander the Great's sarcophagus in relation to David's painting?

The image of the relief from Alexander the Great's sarcophagus serves as a visual reference for the classical influence on David's depiction of Napoleon. The posture of Alexander riding Bucephalus on the sarcophagus is cited as a parallel to the youthful, heroic stance of Napoleon in David's painting.

What does the article suggest about David's technique regarding the finishing touches on his paintings?

The article suggests that David often delegated the final layer of his paintings, which involved blending tones and smoothing the surface, to his assistants. This indicates a collaborative aspect to his studio practice, especially for large-scale commissions like the Napoleon series.

What is the "infobox" at the beginning of the article providing?

The infobox provides a concise summary of key details about the painting, including its title, artist (Jacques-Louis David), year of creation (1801), medium (Oil on canvas), dimensions, and current location (Château de Malmaison).

How did David's painting differ from other contemporary portraits of Napoleon, such as those by Gros or Ingres?

While other artists like Gros and Ingres produced portraits of Napoleon in formal attire (e.g., coronation robes or imperial throne), David was keen on an equestrian scene. David's approach, especially in the Alpine crossing series, focused on dynamic action and heroic symbolism, contrasting with more static, regal depictions.

What does the phrase "return to the pure Greek" (retour vers le grec pur) refer to in the context of David's work?

The phrase "return to the pure Greek" refers to David's commitment to Neoclassicism, emphasizing the aesthetic principles derived from ancient Greek art. This involved striving for idealized forms, clarity, and noble simplicity, which he applied even to contemporary subjects like Napoleon.

What is the "well-made play" concept mentioned in the context of 19th-century theatre?

The article does not mention the "well-made play" concept. It focuses on paintings related to Napoleon Crossing the Alps.

What is the significance of the 'navigation-not-searchable' class on the hatnote?

The 'navigation-not-searchable' class on the hatnote is a technical attribute used in Wikipedia's markup. It indicates that this specific hatnote element should not be included in search engine results or standard navigation menus, ensuring it functions purely as a navigational aid within the article itself.

Napoleon Crossing The Alps Wiki: Napoleon's Alpine Triumph: An Artistic and Historical Expedition

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

When you are ready...
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮

Historical Context

The Rise of the First Consul

Following his coup d'état on 9 November 1799 (18 Brumaire), Napoleon Bonaparte consolidated his power as First Consul of France. Determined to regain French influence in Italy, which had been lost to the Austrian forces, Napoleon planned a daring military maneuver.

The Alpine Crossing

In May 1800, Napoleon led the Reserve Army across the Great St Bernard Pass. This treacherous route through the Alps was chosen to surprise the Austrian forces. Although Genoa had fallen to the Austrians by the time Napoleon's army arrived, he pressed on, aiming to engage the enemy before they could regroup.

Victory and Diplomacy

The campaign culminated in a decisive French victory at the Battle of Marengo on 9 June 1800. This triumph solidified Napoleon's position and paved the way for a diplomatic rapprochement with Charles IV of Spain. The painting commissioned by the Spanish king was intended as a symbol of this renewed alliance.

The Iconic Portrayals

David's Vision

Jacques-Louis David, a fervent supporter of the new Consulate, was eager to undertake the commission. While the Spanish ambassador initially requested a portrait of Napoleon on horseback, Napoleon himself envisioned a scene depicting his crossing of the Alps. David aimed to create a powerful, idealized image, rather than a strict likeness, capturing Napoleon's character and heroic stature.

The Fiery Steed

Contrary to historical accounts, which describe a calm crossing led by a guide on a mule, David portrayed Napoleon on a rearing, fiery steed. This dramatic composition, likely influenced by Napoleon's own request to be depicted "calm, mounted on a fiery steed," transforms the historical event into a symbol of leadership and determination. The names of Hannibal and Charlemagne, who had also crossed the Alps, were inscribed on the rocks, further mythologizing the feat.

Artistic Idealization

David's portrayal emphasizes Napoleon's youthful vigor and commanding presence. The flowing cloak and the dynamic pose of the horse contribute to the painting's legendary status. This idealized representation served as potent propaganda, cementing Napoleon's image as a heroic leader for his time and posterity.

Evolution of the Masterpiece

Genesis of the Series

Commissioned by Charles IV of Spain in 1800, the project evolved into a series of five oil paintings. Napoleon himself requested three additional versions for various French state locations, including the Château de Saint-Cloud, Les Invalides, and the Royal Palace of Milan. A fifth version remained with David until his death.

Journey Through Time

The original Madrid version was later plundered by Joseph Bonaparte and eventually found its way to the Château de Malmaison. The Saint-Cloud version was taken by Prussian soldiers and now resides in Charlottenburg Palace, Berlin. The copy for Les Invalides was rehung at the Palace of Versailles after the Bourbon Restoration. The Milan version was confiscated by the Austrians and is now in the Belvedere in Vienna. The final version, kept by David, eventually went to the Palace of Versailles.

David's Artistic Method

Neo-Classical Approach

David employed a layered technique, beginning with an ochre drawing to establish the outline. He then applied thin layers of paint, focusing on light and shadow, before a final layer for detail and smoothing, often completed by assistants. Unlike some contemporaries, David utilized the canvas's white background directly, contributing to the painting's luminosity.

Challenges and Adaptations

Napoleon's refusal to sit for the portrait presented a unique challenge. David used a bust for Napoleon's features and his own son as a model for the dynamic pose. The iconic uniform and bicorne were borrowed directly from Napoleon. The powerful equestrian stance drew inspiration from classical sculptures and contemporary equestrian portraits, blending historical gravitas with artistic innovation.

Artistic Lineage

Classical Ideals

David's work is deeply rooted in Neo-classicism, seeking a "return to the pure Greek" aesthetic. The youthful, heroic figure of Napoleon echoes classical ideals, reminiscent of figures like Apollo Belvedere and Alexander the Great. The dynamic horse pose draws parallels with equestrian statues and reliefs from antiquity.

Echoes of Masters

The painting's composition and heroic rendering show influences from masters like Nicolas Poussin. The rearing horse, a recurring motif in David's work, also appears in his depiction of "The Intervention of the Sabine Women," demonstrating a consistent artistic vocabulary. The overall effect is a masterful blend of historical narrative and classical artistic principles.

Legacy and Interpretation

Immediate Impact

Upon its exhibition in the Louvre in 1801, the painting generated significant public attention and press commentary. Its widespread reproduction across various media quickly established it as the most iconic and reproduced image of Napoleon, solidifying its role as powerful propaganda and a defining work of the era.

Reinterpretation and Realism

Later artists offered contrasting interpretations. Paul Delaroche's 1850 version presented a more historically accurate, realistic depiction of Napoleon on a mule, challenging David's theatricality. John Everett Millais also referenced David's work, contrasting its rhetoric with a naturalistic scenario in his painting "The Black Brunswicker."

Further Exploration

Related Works

Explore other significant paintings by Jacques-Louis David, including his revolutionary works and portraits of the Napoleonic era.

Artistic Movements

Understand the broader artistic context through Neoclassicism, the dominant style during David's career, characterized by its emphasis on classical antiquity, order, and reason.

Wikimedia Commons

Access a collection of media files related to Napoleon Crossing the Alps and Jacques-Louis David's works.

View Media 🖼️

Scholarly References

Primary Sources & Analysis

The following scholarly works and resources provide foundational information and critical analysis regarding Jacques-Louis David's "Napoleon Crossing the Alps."

Pollitt, Ben. "David's Napoleon Crossing the Alps". Smarthistory. Khan Academy. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
Quote from Napoleon to David regarding the portrait.
David's inclusion of signature and date as part of the painting, similar to The Death of Marat.

General References:

Denon, Dominique-Vivant. Vivant Denon, Directeur des musées sous le Consulat et l'Empire, Correspondance, 2 vol. Paris: Réunion des Musées nationaux, 1999.
Schnapper, Antoine (commissaire de l'exposition). David 1748–1825 catalogue de l'exposition Louvre-Versailles. Paris: Réunion des Musées nationaux, 1989. ISBN 2-7118-2326-1.
Wildenstein, Daniel, and Guy Wildenstein. Document complèmentaires au catalogue de l'œuvre de Louis David. Paris: Fondation Wildenstein, 1973.

Teacher's Corner

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

Edit and Print Materials from this study in the wiki2web studio

Click here to open the "Napoleon Crossing The Alps" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit

Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Learn about napoleon_crossing_the_alps while playing the wiki2web Clarity Challenge game.

Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!

Play now

Explore More Topics

Discover other topics to study!

list of cults of personality

theatre royal drury lane

the valeyard

university of sheffield

bafing region

References

For another example of David's inclusion of the signature and date as part of the painting see The Death of Marat.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Napoleon Crossing the Alps Wikipedia page

Feedback & Support

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional art historical advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional consultation with art historians or curators. Always refer to official museum documentation and consult with qualified professionals for specific inquiries regarding artworks and their provenance.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

Napoleon's Alpine Triumph

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Historical Context ⚔️

👑 The Rise of the First Consul

⛰️ The Alpine Crossing

🏆 Victory and Diplomacy

The Iconic Portrayals 🖼️

🎨 David's Vision

🐎 The Fiery Steed

✨ Artistic Idealization

Evolution of the Masterpiece ⏳

📜 Genesis of the Series

🌍 Journey Through Time

David's Artistic Method 🖌️

💡 Neo-Classical Approach

✍️ Challenges and Adaptations

Artistic Lineage 🏛️

🌟 Classical Ideals

🤝 Echoes of Masters

Legacy and Interpretation 💬

📣 Immediate Impact

🔄 Reinterpretation and Realism

Further Exploration 🔗

🖼️ Related Works

🏛️ Artistic Movements

🖼️ Wikimedia Commons

Scholarly References 📚

📖 Primary Sources & Analysis

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Historical Context

The Rise of the First Consul

The Alpine Crossing

Victory and Diplomacy

The Iconic Portrayals

David's Vision

The Fiery Steed

Artistic Idealization

Evolution of the Masterpiece

Genesis of the Series

Journey Through Time

David's Artistic Method

Neo-Classical Approach

Challenges and Adaptations

Artistic Lineage

Classical Ideals

Echoes of Masters

Legacy and Interpretation

Immediate Impact

Reinterpretation and Realism

Further Exploration

Related Works

Artistic Movements

Wikimedia Commons

Scholarly References

Primary Sources & Analysis

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice