What was the primary purpose for the establishment of the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) in 1873?

The North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) was established as a Canadian paramilitary police force in 1873 with the primary purpose of maintaining order in the vast North-West Territories. This was in response to the transfer of these territories from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada and the subsequent need for law enforcement following events like the Red River Rebellion and the Cypress Hills Massacre.

What specific events and fears prompted the Canadian government to create the NWMP?

The Canadian government created the NWMP due to the Red River Rebellion, reports of lawlessness in the West such as the Cypress Hills Massacre, and concerns about potential incursions by United States military forces into Canada's newly acquired territories. Prime Minister Sir John Macdonald particularly feared that American traders' activities could provoke First Nations retaliation, leading to US intervention and annexation of the region.

How did the NWMP combine different functions, and what model did it follow?

The NWMP combined military, police, and judicial functions, operating along similar lines to the Royal Irish Constabulary. This meant the force was not only responsible for law enforcement but also had elements of a military unit and could perform judicial duties, providing a form of local government in sparsely populated areas.

What was the strategic reasoning behind establishing a small, mobile police force like the NWMP?

A small, mobile police force was chosen as the most effective strategy to minimize potential tensions with both the United States and the Indigenous First Nations populations. This approach was seen as less likely to provoke conflict compared to deploying larger military units.

What was the significance of the NWMP's red coats?

The NWMP uniforms included distinctive red coats, which were deliberately chosen to be reminiscent of British and Canadian military uniforms. This visual cue reinforced the force's paramilitary nature and its connection to the established military traditions of the time.

What was Prime Minister John A. Macdonald's vision for the NWMP's operational role?

Prime Minister John Macdonald envisioned the NWMP as a para-military force composed of mounted riflemen trained for cavalry actions. He defined its purpose as 'the preservation of peace and the prevention of crime' across the vast North-West Territories, acting as a visible symbol of Canadian sovereignty and law.

Describe the 'March West' undertaken by the NWMP in 1874.

The 'March West' refers to the NWMP's arduous journey in 1874 from Fort Dufferin towards the Alberta border. This expedition, covering nearly 900 miles, involved 275 men, numerous horses, oxen, and Red River carts, and became famously portrayed as an epic feat of endurance, despite significant planning and logistical failures.

What was the initial plan for the NWMP's future in 1896, and how did the Klondike Gold Rush alter it?

By 1896, the government planned to transfer policing responsibilities to the provinces and disband the NWMP. However, the discovery of gold in the Klondike led to the redeployment of the NWMP to assert Canadian sovereignty in the region and manage the influx of prospectors, effectively halting the disbandment plans.

When and why was the NWMP granted the title 'Royal'?

The NWMP was awarded the title 'Royal' in 1904 by King Edward VII. This honor recognized the force's contributions during the Second Boer War and its 30 years of service policing the North-West and Yukon Territories.

What were the key factors driving Canada's westward expansion and the establishment of the NWMP in the 1870s?

Canada's westward expansion was driven by a desire to assert sovereignty over the vast North-West Territories, acquired from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870. A primary motivation was the fear that the United States might annex the region, making the establishment of law and order, symbolized by the NWMP, a crucial step in securing Canadian control.

What was the geographical and demographic landscape of the North-West Territories prior to the NWMP's widespread deployment?

The North-West Territories varied greatly geographically, from arctic conditions to the grasslands of the Great Plains, with the Canadian Shield acting as a natural barrier. Demographically, it was sparsely populated, primarily by First Nations and Inuit peoples, with significant Métis settlements and a smaller number of European settlers, leading to descriptions like the 'Great Lone Land'.

What specific issues in the southern border region necessitated the NWMP's intervention?

The southern border region faced issues such as the presence of whisky-traders from the United States selling alcohol to Indigenous peoples, which fueled social problems and violence. Additionally, increased pressure from Sioux and Peigan groups fleeing the US military created instability, highlighting the absence of a formal justice system and the need for law enforcement.

What was the initial plan for a border police force in 1869, and what delayed its implementation?

In 1869, Prime Minister Macdonald planned a 200-strong mounted police force to maintain border order, believing it would be more cost-effective than deploying militia. However, the implementation was delayed by the Métis rebellion in 1870 and the subsequent threat of a Fenian invasion.

How did the Cypress Hills Massacre influence the establishment of the NWMP?

The Cypress Hills Massacre in June 1873, where approximately 30 Assiniboine people were killed by American whisky traders, created a national outcry. This event significantly pressured the Canadian government, leading Prime Minister Macdonald to use a Privy Council order to enact the Mounted Police Act, formally creating the NWMP and accelerating plans for its deployment.

What political changes occurred that affected the NWMP's initial deployment?

The Conservative government under John Macdonald, which initially approved the NWMP, fell from power due to the Pacific Scandal. The subsequent Liberal administration, led by Alexander Mackenzie, took a stronger stance on the whisky trade and border security, ultimately deciding to deploy the NWMP rather than a joint US-Canada military expedition.

What were the primary challenges faced by the NWMP during the 'March West' expedition in 1874?

The NWMP faced severe challenges during the 'March West,' including poor planning, inadequate experience among teamsters and horse suitability for draught work, leading to slow progress. Once they turned off the main trail, they suffered from a lack of food and water, harsh weather, and significant horse mortality, pushing the expedition close to disaster.

How did the NWMP's arrival impact the whisky trade and relations with the Blackfoot Confederacy?

Upon the NWMP's arrival and establishment of Fort Macleod, the whisky trade in the region collapsed as traders either moved away or engaged in legitimate businesses. The Blackfoot Confederacy welcomed the police, with Chief Crowfoot promoting cooperation, appreciating the NWMP's role in ending the destructive whisky trade and fostering a period of relative peace.

Describe the NWMP's approach to law enforcement and relations with First Nations during their early years (1874-1895).

In their early years, the NWMP applied Canadian law rigorously but also maintained cordial relationships with First Nations leaders, contributing to lower levels of violence compared to the US. Historians characterize their approach as 'benevolent despotism' or 'legal tyranny,' showing support for First Nations against ranchers while enforcing laws strictly, including the controversial pass system later on.

How did the NWMP manage the complex situation involving the Sioux seeking refuge in Canada in the late 1870s?

The NWMP played a crucial role in managing the large influx of Sioux, led by Sitting Bull, who sought sanctuary in Canada after the Battle of the Little Bighorn. The police helped facilitate negotiations, provided essential supplies to the refugees who were not eligible for government support, and maintained order in the Fort Walsh area until starvation eventually drove most back to the United States.

What role did the NWMP play in the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway?

The NWMP played a significant role in the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway by escorting construction teams, enforcing liquor laws along the route, overseeing service workers, and intervening in labor disputes. They guarded company property during strikes and helped maintain order, earning thanks from CPR head William Van Horne for their contribution to the project's completion.

How did the NWMP's actions during the North-West Rebellion (1885) draw criticism?

During the North-West Rebellion, NWMP actions drew criticism, particularly from Major-General Frederick Middleton, who accused them of remaining in Prince Albert instead of reinforcing his troops at the Battle of Batoche. Middleton publicly likened the police to 'gophers' for their perceived lack of engagement, leading to media criticism and the eventual resignation of Commissioner Irvine.

What was the purpose and impact of the pass system enforced by the NWMP from 1885 onwards?

The pass system, introduced during the North-West Rebellion and made permanent, required First Nations individuals to obtain a pass from a government agent to leave a reservation. While intended as a means of social control and to reassure settlers, the NWMP knew it violated Treaty 7 and was largely ineffective, as Indigenous peoples often ignored it.

How did the NWMP contribute to the settlement and development of the Canadian Prairies after the North-West Rebellion?

Following the rebellion, the NWMP's presence was increased to manage the growing white population and maintain order. They provided essential services to settlers and ranchers, enforced laws, and their extensive patrol system, covering vast distances, was credited with virtually eliminating rural crime by the late 1880s.

What was the NWMP's approach to managing prostitution in the developing towns of the West?

The NWMP generally viewed prostitution as a 'necessary evil,' tolerating brothels to avoid social unrest, despite it being illegal. While they occasionally raided establishments to maintain appearances, they often regulated the sex industry informally, a policy that caused friction with temperance groups and civic organizations.

How did the growth of urban centers and industrialization impact the NWMP's duties between 1895 and 1914?

The growth of urban centers, increased immigration, and industrialization led to a significant rise in criminal cases handled by the NWMP, straining their resources. They faced new demands in managing public order in towns, enforcing laws related to new industries, and assisting in the construction of new railway lines, often diverting focus from traditional prairie patrols.

What role did the NWMP play during the Klondike Gold Rush (1896-1899)?

During the Klondike Gold Rush, the NWMP played a critical role in asserting Canadian sovereignty in the Yukon, managing the massive influx of prospectors, and maintaining order. They established control posts, checked for illegal weapons, collected customs duties, mediated disputes, and provided essential services, creating a relatively orderly environment compared to neighboring US territories.

How did the NWMP's involvement in the Second Boer War (1899-1902) affect the force?

Many NWMP members volunteered for service in the Second Boer War, significantly reducing the force's numbers in Canada. The NWMP's experience in policing vast, rugged terrain made them valuable contributors to the Canadian Mounted Rifles battalion, and their service earned the force the 'Royal' title in 1904.

What controversies and criticisms did the NWMP face, particularly concerning Commissioner Lawrence Herchmer?

The NWMP faced criticism through the 'Herchmer scandals,' involving allegations of misdemeanors and unpopular leadership by Commissioner Lawrence Herchmer. Despite official inquiries clearing him, criticisms persisted about the force being oversized, overfunded, and staffed by political appointees, leading to discussions about its potential disbandment.

How did the NWMP adapt its structure and operations to changing conditions in the early 20th century?

As Canada expanded and modernized, the NWMP adapted by increasing its size, establishing a formal training depot, and adopting new technologies like typewriters and telephones. They also faced new challenges in urban policing, managing industrial disputes, and expanding their presence into the far north, while grappling with evolving public perceptions and internal criticisms.

What was the NWMP's role in enforcing liquor prohibition, and how did this evolve?

Initially, the NWMP focused on enforcing liquor prohibition to prevent alcohol-related violence among First Nations. However, as white settlement grew, the laws became unpopular, leading to widespread evasion and public hostility towards the force. Prohibition was eventually repealed in 1892, shifting the responsibility for liquor control to local licensing bodies.

Describe the NWMP's relationship with Indigenous peoples in the North during the early 20th century.

In the North, the NWMP generally had better relations with the Inuit, often applying informal justice for occasional crimes, compared to their interactions with First Nations. While First Nations sometimes blamed the police for broader government policies and the police often viewed them with contempt, Indigenous individuals were employed by the NWMP for tasks like driving dog sleds and cooking.

How did the NWMP contribute to national security during World War I?

During World War I, the NWMP was tasked with national security duties, including monitoring immigrants suspected of disloyalty and investigating potential conspiracies related to the Central Powers. They utilized secret agents and informants, and their role expanded to include border security and managing public order amidst wartime tensions, such as the Calgary barracks incident.

What led to the amalgamation of the NWMP and Dominion Police to form the RCMP in 1920?

The amalgamation was driven by the perceived need for a unified federal police force following WWI, highlighted by the chaotic security management during the Winnipeg General Strike. Commissioner Perry recommended merging the larger, more experienced NWMP with the Dominion Police to create a national force responsible for federal law enforcement and security across Canada.

What was the typical rank structure of the NWMP, and how did it evolve?

Initially, the NWMP had ranks like inspectors and constables, reflecting the Royal Irish Constabulary model. In 1878, this structure was revised to include superintendents, inspectors, staff sergeants, sergeants, corporals, and constables, with commissioned officers often informally associated with military ranks like colonel, major, and captain.

What were the typical backgrounds and appointment processes for NWMP commissioned officers?

Commissioned officers were generally from middle- or upper-class backgrounds, often Canadian-born, and their appointments were typically based on political patronage. Selection criteria included military experience, prior service in the police ranks, or education from institutions like the Royal Military College.

How did the NWMP's uniforms change over time to balance tradition and practicality?

Early NWMP uniforms were plain and similar for all ranks. Over time, more elaborate, militaristic uniforms were introduced for officers, inspired by cavalry regiments. However, the practical demands of policing the plains led to the unofficial evolution of 'prairie dress,' featuring more functional clothing like buckskin jackets and Stetson hats, which eventually influenced standardized uniforms.

What were the key elements of the NWMP badge and motto?

The NWMP badge, emerging around 1876, featured a buffalo head, maple leaves, and a crown, symbolizing Canadian identity and authority. Its motto, 'Maintien le droit' (To maintain the right), reflected the force's commitment to upholding justice and order on the frontier.

What types of weaponry were issued to the NWMP, and how did they evolve?

The NWMP was initially equipped with single-shot Snider-Enfield rifles, which were soon replaced by Winchester repeating rifles. Later, they adopted Lee-Metford and then the more advanced Lee-Enfield rifles. They also carried various revolvers and swords, with artillery pieces like 7-pounder guns and Maxim guns used for deterrence and operational support.

How did the NWMP utilize horses and transport, and how did this change with technology?

Horses were fundamental to the NWMP's operations for both riding and draught work, with the force maintaining a large herd and adopting Western-style saddles for comfort. They also used pack ponies, mules, dog sleds, and canoes in remote areas. By the early 20th century, the advent of automobiles led to the mechanization of patrols with cars and motorcycles, gradually reducing reliance on horses.

What was the nature of the NWMP's early living conditions and how did they improve?

Initially, NWMP members lived in basic, often poorly constructed 'forts' made of logs. Living conditions remained spartan for decades, with rudimentary heating, lighting, and sleeping arrangements. Improvements began in the 1880s and 1890s with the construction of more professional barracks, including amenities like canteens and reading rooms.

How did the NWMP's cultural legacy develop in popular media?

The NWMP's cultural legacy was significantly shaped by journalistic accounts, memoirs, and popular fiction, which often romanticized the force as heroic figures maintaining order in the wilderness. Novels, radio programs, and films throughout the 20th century cemented the image of the 'Mountie' as an iconic Canadian symbol, influencing perceptions of the modern RCMP.

What challenges did the NWMP face regarding recruitment and retention of personnel?

Recruitment and retention were ongoing challenges for the NWMP. Early recruits were often dismissed as unsuitable, and later, low pay and harsh conditions contributed to high rates of discharge and desertion. Efforts were made to improve recruit quality and training, and the force increasingly relied on British immigrants, particularly for non-commissioned ranks.

How did the NWMP's relationship with the Canadian Pacific Railway influence its operations?

The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway prompted the NWMP to move its headquarters to Regina and increase its size. The force provided security and logistical support for the railway's construction and operations, including managing labor disputes and enforcing laws along the rail line, demonstrating a close working relationship between the police and the major infrastructure project.

What role did the NWMP play in managing industrial disputes in the early 20th century?

The NWMP was frequently called upon to manage industrial disputes, strikes, and lockouts in the burgeoning industries of Western Canada. Considered cheaper and more politically reliable than the militia, they were deployed to maintain order, protect company property, and sometimes gather intelligence on labor organizers, although their neutrality was often debated by historians.

How did the NWMP's operations in the far north differ from those on the prairies?

Operations in the far north presented unique logistical challenges, requiring extensive use of dog sleds, canoes, and specialized cold-weather gear, including local Inuit clothing. While crime was generally lower than on the prairies, the NWMP also focused on asserting Canadian sovereignty against potential US influence and managing relations with Indigenous communities in remote and harsh environments.

What was the significance of the NWMP's motto, 'Maintien le droit'?

The NWMP's motto, 'Maintien le droit,' translates to 'To maintain the right.' This phrase, adopted from an earlier English origin, underscored the force's core mission to uphold justice, enforce laws, and ensure the rule of law prevailed across the vast and often challenging territories they policed.

How did the NWMP's equipment, particularly firearms, evolve to meet the demands of policing?

The NWMP's firearms evolved from single-shot breechloaders like the Snider-Enfield to more advanced repeating rifles such as the Winchester 1876 and later the Lee-Enfield. This progression reflected advancements in firearm technology and the need for more effective weaponry to maintain order and security in their operational areas.

What was the historical perception of the NWMP's effectiveness during the 'March West' expedition?

While the NWMP later portrayed the 'March West' as an epic journey of endurance, early historical assessments, including those by contemporary historians like William Baker, have described it as a 'monumental fiasco' due to poor planning, incompetence, and harsh treatment of men and beasts. Despite these criticisms, the expedition ultimately succeeded in establishing a police presence in the West.

How did the NWMP's role in enforcing the pass system reflect broader government policies towards First Nations?

The NWMP's enforcement of the pass system, despite knowing its illegality and violation of Treaty 7, demonstrated the government's policy of controlling First Nations movement to facilitate settlement and assimilation. This system, used as a tool of social control, highlighted the complex and often contentious relationship between the police, the government, and Indigenous peoples.

What was the NWMP's contribution to establishing Canadian sovereignty in the North, particularly during the Klondike Gold Rush?

During the Klondike Gold Rush, the NWMP was instrumental in asserting Canadian sovereignty in the Yukon. By establishing control posts, enforcing laws, and managing the influx of predominantly American prospectors, they ensured that the region remained under Canadian jurisdiction, preventing potential US annexation and maintaining order in a rapidly developing frontier.

How did the NWMP's public image develop through popular media and cultural representation?

The NWMP cultivated a heroic and romantic public image through early journalistic accounts, memoirs, and later through popular media like novels, radio shows, and films. This portrayal, often emphasizing chivalry, fairness, and the 'Mountie always gets his man' narrative, helped establish the force as a powerful Canadian national symbol.

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The North-West Mounted Police

A Force for Order

The North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) was a Canadian paramilitary police force established on May 23, 1873. Its primary mandate was to maintain order in the newly acquired Canadian North-West Territories (NWT), a vast region transferred from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada in 1870.^[a]^[2]

Multifaceted Role

The NWMP combined military, police, and judicial functions, modeled after the Royal Irish Constabulary. This structure allowed them to enforce law, administer justice, and project Canadian sovereignty in remote areas, often acting as the sole government presence.^[a]

Legacy

The NWMP played a crucial role in the development of Western Canada, fostering relations with First Nations and establishing law and order. It evolved into the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) in 1920, continuing its legacy of national service.^[4]

The Genesis of the NWMP

Securing the West

Canada's expansion into the NWT in the 1870s was driven by a desire to assert sovereignty and prevent potential annexation by the United States. The transfer of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory in 1870 added immense territory, but it was sparsely populated and largely ungoverned.^[5]^[6]^[7]

Catalysts for Formation

Events like the Red River Rebellion and the Cypress Hills Massacre highlighted the lawlessness and the need for a federal law enforcement presence. Fears of American incursions and the unchecked activities of whisky traders fueled the government's decision to establish a mounted police force.^[a]^[3]^[23]

Political Vision

Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald envisioned a para-military force, composed of mounted riflemen, to maintain peace and prevent crime. Influenced by the Royal Irish Constabulary, the NWMP was designed to provide a localized system of government and law enforcement in the vast, undeveloped territories.^[2]

The Iconic March West

The Expedition

In 1874, the newly formed NWMP embarked on its first major deployment, known as the "March West." The 275-strong expedition, supported by hundreds of horses and Red River carts, traveled nearly 900 miles (1,400 km) from Fort Dufferin, Manitoba, towards the Alberta border.^[30]^[33]

Trials and Hardship

The journey was fraught with difficulties, including poor planning, inadequate supplies, harsh weather, and the loss of horses. The expedition faced starvation and exhaustion, arriving at its destination in a state of disarray, though it ultimately succeeded in establishing forts and asserting Canadian law.^[38]^[42]

Mythologized Endeavor

Despite its initial logistical failures, the March West was later portrayed as an epic tale of bravery and endurance, cementing the force's heroic image in Canadian lore.^[49]

Policing the Frontier

Relations with First Nations

The NWMP established generally cordial relationships with First Nations leaders, notably Chief Crowfoot of the Blackfoot. By enforcing laws against whisky traders and providing essential supplies during times of starvation, the police earned a reputation among Indigenous peoples for being fair, albeit high-handed.^[51]^[60]

Railway and Settlement

The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway brought increased settlement and new challenges. The NWMP escorted construction crews, enforced liquor laws, managed disputes, and later played a role in controlling the influx of settlers and managing relations with First Nations displaced by the railway.^[80]^[85]

Klondike Gold Rush

During the Klondike Gold Rush of the late 1890s, the NWMP established a significant presence in the Yukon Territory. They asserted Canadian sovereignty, controlled borders, collected customs duties, and maintained order among tens of thousands of prospectors, earning international acclaim for their effectiveness.^[189]^[198]

Conflict and Transformation

North-West Rebellion

In 1885, the NWMP was involved in suppressing the North-West Rebellion, led by Louis Riel. While the militia played the primary combat role, NWMP officers and detachments provided crucial support, intelligence, and logistical assistance.^[87]^[88]

Imperial Service

Many NWMP members volunteered for service in the Second Boer War (1899-1902). Their experience in policing vast territories and their military traditions made them valuable assets, influencing the formation of other imperial units and earning the force the title "Royal" in 1904.^[201]^[216]

WWI and Amalgamation

During World War I, the NWMP took on national security duties, investigating potential threats from immigrants and enforcing wartime regulations. The post-war period, marked by labor unrest like the Winnipeg General Strike, highlighted the need for a unified federal police force, leading to the amalgamation of the RNWMP and the Dominion Police to form the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) in 1920.^[256]^[270]^[277]

Organizational Structure

Command Hierarchy

The NWMP was led by a Commissioner, supported by an Assistant Commissioner and later a Comptroller for administrative and financial oversight. The force evolved its rank structure over time, moving from an initial inspectorate to a system of superintendents, inspectors, sergeants, corporals, and constables, often mirroring military ranks.^[278]^[279]

Commissioned Officers

Officers were typically drawn from middle- or upper-class backgrounds, often appointed through political patronage. They held judicial powers as Justices of the Peace and were responsible for managing detachments, enforcing regulations, and maintaining discipline, often balancing their duties with social expectations of their status.^[296]^[298]

Other Ranks

Enlisted men, or "other ranks," formed the backbone of the force. Recruitment standards improved over time, with a significant proportion of members eventually being British-born. They endured harsh living conditions, particularly in the early years, and their pay, while initially competitive, lagged behind civilian wages by the turn of the century.^[308]^[317]

Working Life and Conditions

Living Quarters

Early NWMP posts, often called "forts," were basic, self-built structures. Over time, especially with the move to Regina and the expansion into the North, barracks became more professionally constructed, featuring improved amenities and modern conveniences, though life remained challenging, particularly in remote detachments.^[321]^[325]

Compensation and Benefits

Pay for constables was modest, often supplemented by bonuses for specific duties. While land grants were initially offered, they were later discontinued. A pension scheme was introduced in 1889, providing some measure of security for long-serving members.^[316]^[320]

Discipline and Morale

The force maintained strict discipline, with commissioned officers holding significant judicial authority over constables. Issues such as desertion, early discharge, and managing morale were persistent challenges, exacerbated by the demanding nature of frontier policing and the isolation of many posts.^[315]

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References

The region of New Manitoba was taken into the contract when the province expanded in 1912.[232]

A territorial jail was finally built in Regina in 1891.[290]

History of the RCMP | Royal Canadian Mounted Police

Graybill 2007, p. 10; Zaslow 1971, p. 1

Graybill 2007, p. 9; Zaslow 1971, p. 2

Graybill 2007, p. 9; Zaslow 1971, p. 1

Graybill 2007, p. 8; Morrison 1985, p. 10

Macleod 1976, pp. 7â8; Zaslow 1971, pp. 1, 6â7

Horrall 1974, p. 16; Zaslow 1971, p. 2

Horrall 1974, p. 15; Zaslow 1971, p. 15

Macleod 1976, pp. 3â4, 11, 18; Horrall 1974, p. 15

Macleod 1976, p. 11; Horrall 1974, p. 15

Macleod 1976, p. 15; Horrall 1974, p. 17; Horrall 1973, p. 21

Macleod 1976, pp. 18â19; Horrall 1974, pp. 15, 17

Horrall 1974, p. 18; Horrall 1973, p. 21

Macleod 1976, p. 17; Horrall 1974, pp. 19â20

Horrall 1974, pp. 20â21; Horrall 1973, pp. 41â42

Horrall 1974, pp. 20â21; Stanley 1974, p. 34

Horrall 1974, pp. 20â21; Atkin 1973, p. 60

Stanley 1974, p. 27; Atkin 1973, p. 61

Stanley 1974, pp. 34â35; Atkin 1973, p. 63

Stanley 1974, p. 39; Atkin 1973, pp. 66â67

Stanley 1974, p. 41; Atkin 1973, p. 73

Horrall 1974, p. 23; Stanley 1974, p. 43; Atkin 1973, p. 73

Horrall 1974, p. 23; Atkin 1973, pp. 73â74

Horrall 1974, p. 13; Atkin 1973, pp. 73â74, 84

Horrall 1974, p. 25; Atkin 1973, p. 60

Baker 1998a, p. ix; Atkin 1973, p. 60

Francis 1997, p. 32; Macleod 1976, p. 23; Atkin 1973, p. 60

Macleod 1976, p. 23; Horrall 1974, pp. 13â14

Mayfield 1998, p. 23; Macleod 1976, p. 24

Macleod 1976, pp. 25â26; Atkin 1973, pp. 85â90

Graybill 2007, p. 155; Hewitt 1998, p. 352

Macleod 1976, p. 27; Jennings 1974, p. 58; Atkin 1973, p. 21

Graybill 2007, p. 51; Macleod 1976, p. 27; Breen 1974, pp. 115â116; Jennings 1974, p. 64

Graybill 2007, pp. 62â63; Morton 1998, p. 3; Breen 1974, p. 117; Jennings 1974, pp. 56â57

Hubner 1998, p. 58; Atkin 1973, pp. 141â143

Graybill 2007, pp. 53â54; Macleod 1976, p. 27

Graybill 2007, pp. 53â54; Hubner 1998, p. 58; Mayfield 1998, pp. 24â25; Macleod 1976, p. 27

Atkin 1973, pp. 160, 172; Horrall 1973, pp. 75â76

Graybill 2007, p. 174; Atkin 1973, pp. 183â185

Macleod 1976, pp. 102â103; Atkin 1973, p. 215

Macleod 1976, pp. 102â103; Atkin 1973, pp. 213â215

Macleod 1976, p. 103; Atkin 1973, p. 214

Macleod 1976, pp. 41, 103; Atkin 1973, p. 215

Macleod 1976, p. 105; Atkin 1973, p. 222

Macleod 1976, p. 103; Atkin 1973, pp. 220â229

Macleod 1976, p. 104; Atkin 1973, p. 232

Macleod 1976, p. 104; Atkin 1973, pp. 244â228

Morrison 1985, p. 8; Atkin 1973, pp. 238â239

Morrison 1985, p. 8; Macleod 1976, p. 105

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 14, 38; Macleod 1976, p. 144

Macleod 1976, pp. 45â46; Horrall 1973, p. 77

Graybill 2007, p. 115; Breen 1974, p. 117

Graybill 2007, pp. 134â136, 144â146; Breen 1974, pp. 129â131

Graybill 2007, p. 117; Betke 1998, p. 219; Breen 1974, pp. 123, 135

Betke 1998, p. 210; Macleod 1976, pp. 45â46

Betke 1998, pp. 210â211; Macleod 1976, pp. 46â47

Graybill 2007, p. 116; Hubner 1998, pp. 65â67

Betke 1998, pp. 211â212; Hubner 1998, pp. 64â65; Macleod 1976, p. 46

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 57; Hubner 1998, pp. 68â69

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 35; Macleod 1976, pp. 137â139

Graybill 2007, p. 162; Hewitt 1998, pp. 352â353

Graybill 2007, pp. 160â161; Hewitt 1998, p. 353

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 56; Morrison 1985, p. 18; Macleod 1976, p. 65

Betke 1998, p. 213; Macleod 1976, pp. 46, 52â53

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 91; Macleod 1976, pp. 50â51, 65

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 18; Macleod 1976, p. 157

Graybill 2007, p. 186; Baker 1998b, p. 141; Macleod 1976, p. 157

Graybill 2007, pp. 174â175; Baker 1998b, p. 141

Graybill 2007, p. 199; Baker 1998b, p. 147; Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 50; Macleod 1976, p. 157

Graybill 2007, pp. 169â170, 173; Macleod 1976, p. 158

Graybill 2007, p. 187; Baker 1998b, pp. 145â146

Graybill 2007, pp. 189â190; Baker 1998b, pp. 147â157

Graybill 2007, pp. 186â187; Macleod 1976, p. 160

Graybill 2007, p. 189; Baker 1998b, pp. 140, 170

Gates 1997, pp. 69â70; Morrison 1985, pp. 15â16

Gates 1997, pp. 90â91; Wright 1976, p. 257

Gates 1997, p. 113; Morrison 1985, p. 25; Morrison 1974, p. 94

Berton 2001, pp. 112, 396; Porsild 1998, p. 201; Fetherling 1997, p. 125

Berton 2001, pp. 269â274, 421â431; Porsild 1998, pp. 16, 201â203; Coates 1994, p. xviii

Allen 2007, p. 7; Morrison 1985, pp. 8â9; Macleod 1976, p. 46; Morrison 1974, p. 95

Morrison 1974, p. 95; Zaslow 1971, p. 137; Winslow 1952, p. 72

Porsild 1998, pp. 200â204; Fetherling 1997, p. 125

Morrison 1974, p. 95; Zaslow 1971, p. 137

Berton 2001, p. 248; Morrison 1985, p. 63

Berton 2001, pp. 154, 248â249; Atkin 1973, p. 335

Morrison 1985, pp. 50â51; Zaslow 1971, p. 137

Morrison 1985, pp. 40â41, 50â51; Morrison 1974, p. 100; Zaslow 1971, p. 137

Macleod 1976, p. 107; Atkin 1973, pp. 360â361

Macleod 1976, p. 57; Atkin 1973, p. 361

McIntyre 1997, p. 86; Atkin 1973, p. 360

McCoy 2000, pp. 74â75; Ross & May 1988, p. 16

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 8; Macleod 1976, p. 54

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 140; Morrison 1985, p. 17; Macleod 1976, p. 55

Ross & May 1988, p. 14; Macleod 1976, p. 46

Macleod 1976, pp. 62â63; Breen 1974, p. 136

Hewitt 2002, p. 19; Kealey 1998, pp. 326â327

Hewitt 2002, p. 19; Horrall 1998, p. 308; Kealey 1998, pp. 327â328

Hewitt 1998, p. 358; Horrall 1973, pp. 91, 165

Horrall 1998, pp. 312, 319; Hewitt 1997, pp. 103, 155â172

Wilson 2016, p. 29; Lackenbauer 2001, p. 10

Hewitt 1998, p. 358; Horrall 1973, p. 165

Horrall 1998, p. 309; Kealey 1998, p. 328

Kealey 1998, p. 328; Horrall 1973, p. 91

Horrall 1998, p. 309; Kealey 1998, pp. 329, 338

Hewitt 2002, p. 20; Horrall 1998, p. 309; Kealey 1998, pp. 329, 338

Hewitt 2002, p. 6; Horrall 1998, p. 309; Kealey 1998, p. 333; Hewitt 1997, p. 110

Hewitt 2002, p. 20; Horrall 1998, p. 309; Kealey 1998, p. 333

Hewitt 2002, p. 20; Horrall 1998, p. 309; Kealey 1998, p. 338

Horrall 1998, pp. 311â312; Kealey 1998, pp. 338â339

Kealey 1998, pp. 340â341, 344; Hewitt 1997, p. 138

Horrall 1998, pp. 318â320; Kealey 1998, p. 339

Horrall 1998, pp. 320â321; Kealey 1998, p. 339

Atkin 1973, pp. 135â136; Horrall 1973, p. 23

Morrison 1985, p. 7; Goldring 1979, p. 16

Macleod 1976, p. 49; Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 302

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 178, 302; Macleod 1976, p. 49

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 5, 268; Hewitt 1997, p. 82; Morrison 1985, p. 7

Hewitt 1997, p. 82; Morrison 1985, p. 7

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 154â155; Macleod 1976, p. 73

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 155, 265; Macleod 1976, pp. 74, 78

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 154â155; Morrison 1985, p. 3; Macleod 1976, p. 76

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 156â157, 167; Atkin 1973, p. 50

Goldring 1979, p. 8; Atkin 1973, pp. 49â50

Marquis 2005, p. 189; Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 173; Macleod 1976, pp. 81â82

Marquis 2005, p. 189; Hewitt 1997, p. 63; Horrall 1973, p. 165

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 171, 222; Atkin 1973, p. 124

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 171â174, 232â234, 239â240

Atkin 1973, pp. 50, 136; Horrall 1973, p. 23

Hewitt 1997, p. 63; Horrall 1973, p. 177; Chambers 1906, p. 142

Morton 1998, p. 9; Ross & May 1988, p. 22; Haydon 1926, p. 28

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 212; Atkin 1973, p. 127

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 220; Ross & May 1988, p. 43

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 225; Ross & May 1988, p. 24

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 229; Ross & May 1988, p. 24

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 229; Ross & May 1988, p. 33

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 283â285; Ross & May 1988, p. 24

Beahen & Horrall 1998, p. 285; Morrison 1985, p. 122

Horrall 1973, p. 214; Chambers 1906, p. 144

Beahen & Horrall 1998, pp. 24â25, 55; Morrison 1985, p. 4

Dawson 1998, p. 33; Hewitt 1998, p. 354

Graybill 2007, p. 17; Harrison 2004, p. 1; Dawson 1998, p. 35

Harrison 2004, pp. 1â2; Dawson 1998, pp. 35, 42

Graybill 2007, p. 17; Dawson 1998, p. 37

Harrison 2004, pp. 3â4; Harrison 1974, p. 164

Harrison 2004, p. 5; Marsden 1993, p. 8; Harrison 1974, p. 166

Graybill 2007, p. 18; Dawson 1998, p. 49

Graybill 2007, pp. 17â18; Dawson 1998, p. 25; Hewitt 1998, p. 355

Hewitt 2002, p. 4; Kealey 1998, p. 325

Baker 1998a, p. ix; Dawson 1998, p. 19; Hewitt 1998, p. 356

Baker 1998a, p. ix; Hewitt 1998, p. 352

Baker 1998a, p. viii; Horrall 1974, p. 14

Baker 1998a, p. x; Dawson 1998, p. 19; Hewitt 1998, p. 352

Hewitt 1998, p. 356; Kealey 1998, p. 325

A full list of references for this article are available at the North-West Mounted Police Wikipedia page

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Guardians of the Frontier

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The North-West Mounted Police 🛡️

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⚖️ Multifaceted Role

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The Genesis of the NWMP ⏳

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🔥 Catalysts for Formation

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🌟 Mythologized Endeavor

Policing the Frontier 🤠

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⛏️ Klondike Gold Rush

Conflict and Transformation ⚔️

✊ North-West Rebellion

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📊 Command Hierarchy

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

The North-West Mounted Police

A Force for Order

Multifaceted Role

Legacy

The Genesis of the NWMP

Securing the West

Catalysts for Formation

Political Vision

The Iconic March West

The Expedition

Trials and Hardship

Mythologized Endeavor

Policing the Frontier

Relations with First Nations

Railway and Settlement

Klondike Gold Rush

Conflict and Transformation

North-West Rebellion

Imperial Service

WWI and Amalgamation

Organizational Structure

Command Hierarchy

Commissioned Officers

Other Ranks

Working Life and Conditions

Living Quarters

Compensation and Benefits

Discipline and Morale

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice