What was Operation Achse, and what was its original codename?

Operation Achse, originally codenamed Operation Alaric (German: *Unternehmen Alarich*), was a German military operation during World War II. Its primary purpose was to forcibly disarm the Italian armed forces after Italy signed an armistice with the Allies on 3 September 1943. The operation's name, 'Achse,' translates to 'Axis,' reflecting its goal to secure Axis control over Italian territories.

What was the primary objective of Operation Achse?

The primary objective of Operation Achse was to forcibly disarm the Italian armed forces following Italy's armistice with the Allies. This was a critical move by Germany to prevent Italian military assets from falling into Allied hands and to secure strategic positions previously held by their former ally.

When did Operation Achse take place, and what was its immediate cause?

Operation Achse took place from 8 to 23 September 1943. Its immediate cause was Italy's armistice with the Allies, which was signed on 3 September 1943 and made public on 8 September 1943. This armistice effectively meant Italy was withdrawing from its alliance with Nazi Germany.

What were the geographical areas affected by Operation Achse?

Operation Achse affected Italy, the Balkans, and Southern France. German forces moved rapidly to take over Italian zones of occupation in these regions and to disarm Italian forces present there.

What was the outcome of Operation Achse, and what were the territorial changes that resulted?

Operation Achse resulted in an Axis victory. The territorial changes included the German occupation of Northern and central Italy and the establishment of the Italian Social Republic, a German puppet state led by Benito Mussolini after his rescue.

Who were the main belligerents involved in Operation Achse?

The main belligerents were the Kingdom of Italy on one side, and Nazi Germany, supported by Croatia and Romania, on the other. This marked a significant shift in alliances during World War II, as Italy, formerly an Axis power, became an adversary to Germany.

Who were the key Italian commanders and leaders during Operation Achse?

Key Italian commanders and leaders included Victor Emmanuel III, Pietro Badoglio, Vittorio Ambrosio, Mario Roatta, Ezio Rosi (who became a prisoner of war), and Mario Vercellino (who also became a prisoner of war). These figures represented the Italian monarchy and the new government that sought to exit the war.

Who were the key German and Axis commanders involved in Operation Achse?

Key German and Axis commanders included Albert Kesselring, Erwin Rommel, Gerd von Rundstedt, Maximilian von Weichs, Alexander Löhr, Miroslav Navratil (for Croatia), and Horia Macellariu (for Romania). These commanders led the German and allied forces in disarming the Italians.

What was the approximate strength of the Italian and German forces at the outset of Operation Achse?

At the outset of Operation Achse, Italian forces comprised approximately 60 divisions, with 26 in Italy, 31 in the Balkans, and 3 in France. German forces, along with their allies, numbered around 40 divisions, with 17 in Italy, 19 in the Balkans, and 4 in France.

What were the reported casualties and losses for Italian forces during Operation Achse?

Italian forces suffered between 20,000 and 30,000 killed, and 1,006,370 soldiers were disarmed. Additionally, Romanian forces captured 496 Italian prisoners and 5 midget submarines. These figures highlight the rapid and extensive collapse of the Italian military.

What specific equipment did German forces capture from the Italians during Operation Achse?

German forces captured a significant amount of Italian equipment, including 977 armored vehicles, 16,631 vehicles, and 17,058 artillery pieces and mortars. Many warships were also captured, further weakening Italy's military capabilities.

How did the German High Command initially plan for Italy's potential defection, and what were the codenames for these plans?

The German High Command (OKW) initially developed guidelines in May 1943 to respond to Italy's possible defection. These plans included Operation Alarich for the invasion of the Italian mainland, Operation Konstantin for neutralizing Italian forces in the Balkans, Operation Siegfried for occupying Italian-held areas in Southern France, Operation Nürnberg to guard the France-Spain border, and Operation Kopenhagen to control passes on the France-Italy border.

Why did Adolf Hitler express doubts about the Fascist government's stability in May 1943?

Adolf Hitler expressed doubts about the Fascist government's stability due to declining morale among the Italian population, the spread of pro-British sentiment within professional classes and the military, and the perceived untrustworthiness of certain Italian figures like General Mario Roatta. Reports from German diplomats and Heinrich Himmler's men in Italy further fueled these suspicions.

Which German divisions were initially sent to Italy to reinforce defenses before the armistice?

Before the armistice, Germany sent several divisions to Italy to bolster defenses against a potential Allied attack. These included the 90th Light Infantry Division (Sardinia Command), the 15th Infantry Division (Sicily Command), the 1st Fallschirm-Panzer Division Hermann Göring (to Sicily), and the 16th Panzer Division (west of Bari). Additionally, the headquarters of XIV Panzer Corps was sent to strengthen the command structure.

What was the significance of the Feltre meeting between Hitler and Mussolini on July 19, 1943?

The Feltre meeting on July 19, 1943, was significant because it highlighted Mussolini's weakness and indecisiveness, as he only asked for more German help despite pleas from his own staff to discuss Italy's critical situation. Hitler, in turn, delivered an exhausting speech about fighting to the end, refused Italian requests for more support, and did not heed calls for a unified German command in Italy. This meeting ultimately accomplished little for Italy and reinforced Hitler's belief that Mussolini's morale had been lifted, despite evidence to the contrary.

Why was the codename 'Alaric' changed to 'Achse' for the German operation?

The codename 'Alaric' was quietly changed to 'Achse' to avoid offending the Italians. Alaric was the Visigothic king who sacked Rome in 410 AD, and using his name for an operation against Italy would have been a historical and political insult, especially as Germany still officially considered Italy an ally at the time of the initial planning.

How did Hitler and the German leadership react to the fall of Benito Mussolini on July 25, 1943?

Hitler and the German leadership were taken by surprise and enraged by Mussolini's fall on July 25. Despite assurances from the new Italian government, Hitler immediately understood that this change was a prelude to Italy's defection, which would endanger German forces in Southern Italy and across Southern Europe. He initially considered occupying Rome and arresting the new government but then decided to reactivate planning for Operation Alaric (later Achse) and send reinforcements.

What new operational plans did Germany develop after Mussolini's fall, in addition to 'Achse'?

After Mussolini's fall, Germany confirmed existing plans like 'Siegfried,' 'Konstantin,' and 'Kopenhagen.' New operations were also studied, including 'Schwartz' to capture the Italian government in Rome, 'Achse' to capture the Italian fleet, 'Eiche' to free Mussolini from captivity, and 'Student' to capture Rome. Eventually, 'Konstantin' and 'Alarich' were combined into the single plan 'Achse' for the occupation of Italy and the Balkans.

What was the Italian government's approach to the armistice negotiations with the Allies?

The Italian government, led by Pietro Badoglio, officially proclaimed loyalty to Germany while secretly attempting to negotiate with the Allies to exit the war. They sought to gain time and avoid the consequences of a sudden change of sides, even asking for more German divisions to defend the peninsula, which paradoxically increased the German threat to Italy.

What happened at the Tarvisio conference on August 6, 1943, between Italian and German officials?

At the Tarvisio conference on August 6, 1943, mutual distrust between Italian and German officials became apparent. Italian Foreign Minister Raffaele Guariglia and General Ambrosio requested an increase in German divisions, but wanted them deployed in Southern Italy against the Allies. German officials Keitel and Warlimont, however, insisted that new German units would be deployed in Central and Northern Italy as a strategic reserve, highlighting the conflicting objectives.

What was Operation Lehrgang, and how was it executed?

Operation Lehrgang was the skillful withdrawal of General Hans Hube's XIV Panzer Corps from Sicily to Calabria, executed on August 17. Despite intense fighting, the vast majority of German troops and much of their heavy equipment managed to cross the Straits of Messina, demonstrating effective tactical retreat under pressure.

When was the Armistice of Cassibile signed, and when was it publicly announced?

The Armistice of Cassibile was signed on 3 September 1943. However, there was a significant misunderstanding regarding the announcement timing; the Badoglio government hoped to delay it until at least 12 September, but General Dwight Eisenhower publicly announced the armistice on Radio Algiers on the evening of 8 September 1943.

What was Operation Giant 2, and why was it ultimately cancelled?

Operation Giant 2 was a planned intervention by an American airborne division to protect Rome and the Italian government. It was ultimately cancelled because General Maxwell Taylor, sent secretly to Rome, advised the Allied command that the operation was destined to fail due to the disorganization of the Italian forces stationed around the capital and the Italian leadership's indecisiveness.

How did the Italian high commands' instructions regarding German aggression contribute to the confusion among Italian forces?

The Italian high commands issued general guidelines (Order No. 111, OP 44 Memorandum, No. 1 and No. 2 Memorandums) that were vague, lacked detail, and were nearly inapplicable due to excessive secrecy. This, combined with the ambiguity of Badoglio's public message, led to widespread confusion, insecurity, and indecision among Italian peripheral commands and troops, making them ineffective against German aggression.

What Italian forces were concentrated around Rome for its defense?

For the defense of Rome, Italian commanders concentrated a considerable number of troops, totaling about 55,000 men and 200 armored fighting vehicles. These forces included the Motorized-Armored Army Corps (composed of the 10th Infantry Division 'Piave,' 21st Infantry Division 'Granatieri di Sardegna,' 135th Armored Cavalry Division 'Ariete,' and 136th Armored Legionary Division 'Centauro'), the 12th Infantry Division 'Sassari,' the 103rd Infantry Division 'Piacenza,' and battalions from the 13th Infantry Division 'Re' and 7th Infantry Division 'Lupi di Toscana'.

What German forces were deployed to capture Rome?

The German forces deployed to capture Rome consisted of General Kurt Student's 11th Airborne Corps, headquartered in Pratica di Mare. This corps included the 2nd Parachute Division under General Walter Barenthin, positioned south of Rome, and the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division under General Fritz-Hubert Gräser, reinforced by an armored battalion (Kampfgruppe Büsing) of the 26th Panzer Division, stationed north of Rome. These units comprised approximately 26,000 men and several hundred armored fighting vehicles.

Describe the key events and fighting during the fall of Rome to German forces.

On the evening of September 8, 1943, German paratroopers attacked a fuel depot and advanced south, overcoming sporadic resistance. Fierce fighting erupted at the Magliana bridge between German forces and Italian Granatieri di Sardegna and Ariete II units. By the morning of September 9, Ciampino airport was captured, and German troops were close to the city center. Despite Italian resistance, particularly at Porta San Paolo by Granatieri di Sardegna and civilian volunteers, the Germans entered the city center on September 10. Negotiations led to Rome's capitulation that afternoon, with General Siegfried Westphal securing the surrender and authorizing a provisional Italian command.

How did the Italian political and military leadership, including the King and Badoglio, escape Rome?

At 05:10 on September 9, the King, Pietro Badoglio, high-ranking officers, dignitaries, and family members fled Rome in seven cars. They traveled via Tivoli and Avezzano to Pescara, then to Ortona, where they boarded the corvette *Baionetta*. This vessel transported them to Brindisi, which had already been reached by Allied troops, ensuring their safety.

What was the 'open city' status of Rome, and how did the Germans utilize it?

After Rome's capitulation, a provisional Italian command under General Giorgio Calvi di Bergolo was authorized, and the Germans stated that the city's 'open city' status would be maintained. However, this status was never recognized by the Allies, and the Germans exploited it to use Rome as a crucial logistical hub for supplying their frontline forces, effectively disregarding the city's declared neutrality.

What was the fate of Italian forces in Southern Italy during Operation Achse?

In Southern Italy, Italian forces were generally weak and quickly overwhelmed by German troops. Many were summarily disarmed and sent home, with only a fraction held captive. For instance, the Naples garrison was destroyed, and its commander executed, while the 222nd Coastal Division was dispersed, and its commander killed for refusing to surrender. However, in Calabria, Basilicata, and Apulia, the weakness of German forces and the swift arrival of Allies allowed many Italian units to maintain cohesion and offer successful resistance.

What happened to the commander of the Naples garrison and General Ferrante Vincenzo Gonzaga in Salerno?

In Naples, the garrison commander, Colonel Olivier, was executed after two days of resistance against a German armored column. In the Salerno area, General Ferrante Vincenzo Gonzaga, commander of the 222nd Coastal Division, was killed after refusing to surrender when his division was attacked and dispersed by the 16th Panzer Division.

How did the 7th Italian Army in Calabria, Basilicata, and Apulia respond to the German actions?

The 7th Italian Army, stationed in Calabria, Basilicata, and Apulia, faced German attacks, including the surprise capture of its headquarters in Potenza. However, due to the scarcity of German forces in these regions and the swift intervention of Allied forces, the majority of Italian units managed to maintain cohesion and offer successful resistance, holding off the Germans until Allied relief arrived.

Describe the German withdrawal from Sardinia to Corsica and the Italian reaction.

General Frido von Senger und Etterlin successfully withdrew the German 90th Panzergrenadier Division from Sardinia to Corsica. Italian forces under General Antonio Basso, lacking mobility, did not impede this transfer, which was completed by September 18. A notable incident involved the XII Battalion of the Nembo Division, which mutinied, killed its chief of staff, and joined the German forces.

What was the significance of Operation Eiche, and who carried it out?

Operation Eiche was a paratrooper operation carried out on September 12, 1943, by units under Major Harald Mors, which included SS officer Otto Skorzeny. Its significance was the successful freeing of Benito Mussolini from his detention in Campo Imperatore, Gran Sasso, which was a crucial prerequisite for Hitler's plan to establish a new fascist collaborationist government in Italy.

How did the German Army Group B under Field Marshal Rommel succeed in central and northern Italy?

Field Marshal Rommel's Army Group B succeeded in central and northern Italy due to a favorable strategic situation. They had a considerable number of troops, were far from Allied intervention, and their units were well-positioned. Many Italian commanders, prioritizing avoiding riots and devastation, refused civilian help, autonomously dissolved units, and negotiated uneventful handovers, leading to rapid disintegration of Italian forces and Rommel's swift and efficient execution of the 'Achse' plan.

What was the fate of the 4th Italian Army in Southern France?

The 4th Italian Army, under General Mario Vercellino, was on its way from Provence to Italy when the armistice was announced. Panic and demoralization spread, leading to the disintegration of units between September 9 and 11 under pressure from converging German forces. Most soldiers dispersed, some joined the Germans, and others formed early partisan groups in the mountains of Piedmont. General Vercellino formally dissolved his Army on September 12.

What was the general situation of Italian forces in the Balkans at the time of the armistice?

At the time of the armistice, Italian forces in the Balkans (Slovenia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, and Greece) comprised over 30 divisions and 500,000 soldiers. They were exhausted from two years of counter-guerrilla operations, isolated in hostile territory, and intermingled with numerous German and Croat collaborationist units. They faced confusing and vague orders, leading to rapid disintegration.

Why did Italian soldiers in the Balkans often fight with more determination compared to those in Italy?

Italian soldiers in the Balkans often fought with more determination because they were exhausted from years of brutal anti-partisan operations, isolated in hostile territory, and faced immediate and brutal reprisals from German units. This dire situation, combined with a lack of clear orders and the hostility of former allies, often left them with little choice but to resist, leading to heavy casualties.

What was the outcome for Italian soldiers in the Balkans, including those who joined partisan groups?

In the Balkans, 393,000 Italian soldiers were captured and deported to Germany. Approximately 29,000 joined the Germans, while 20,000 joined local partisan formations (Yugoslav or Greek) and continued fighting. Another 57,000 dispersed, hid, or tried to survive independently. German forces brutally crushed Italian resistance, often executing officers.

Describe the events surrounding the 15th Infantry Division 'Bergamo' in Split, Yugoslavia.

In Split, Yugoslavia, the 15th Infantry Division 'Bergamo' made an agreement with Yugoslav partisans and defended the town until September 27 against the German 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen. After their surrender, three Italian generals (Alfonso Cigala Fulgosi, Salvatore Pelligra, and Angelo Policardi) and 46 officers were executed by the Germans, highlighting the harsh reprisals.

What happened to the 151st Infantry Division 'Perugia' in Albania?

The 151st Infantry Division 'Perugia' attempted to resist German forces in Albania. After a fighting retreat, it fell back to Porto Edda, where some men managed to embark on ships for Italy. However, the majority of the division, weakened by an exhausting march through the Albanian mountains and continuous attacks, was surrounded and surrendered on September 22. Subsequently, General Ernesto Chiminello and 130 officers were executed, though some survivors joined partisan groups, forming the Antonio Gramsci Battalion.

What was the mortality rate for Italian soldiers in Albania during the winter of 1943-1944?

During the winter of 1943-1944, the mortality rate among Italian soldiers in Albania was estimated by British documents to be about one hundred deaths per day. This high rate was due to cold, starvation, and the harsh conditions faced by the 45,000 soldiers who evaded capture and dispersed across the country, often sheltered by the local population in exchange for labor.

How did Italian forces in mainland Greece and Crete generally respond to the armistice?

In mainland Greece and Crete, Italian forces generally responded with uncertainty and ambivalent behavior from superior officers. General Carlo Vecchiarelli, commander of the 11th Italian Army, initially ordered no initiatives against Germans and later instructed troops to surrender weapons without fighting, believing in safe-conducts. This led to the easy disarmament of most units, though some, like the 24th Infantry Division 'Pinerolo,' resisted or joined local partisans.

What tragic events unfolded on the Greek island of Cephalonia involving the Acqui Division?

On Cephalonia, the 11,500-strong Italian 33rd Infantry Division 'Acqui,' under General Antonio Gandin, initially hesitated but decided to resist a German ultimatum. After fierce fighting against the 1st Mountain Division, the Italians were forced to surrender on September 22. Following the surrender, the Germans carried out a bloody reprisal, executing General Gandin, about 400 officers, and 4,000 to 5,000 men of the Acqui Division. An additional 1,350 men perished when their transport ships were sunk.

What happened to the Italian garrison and its commander in Corfu?

In Corfu, the 4,500-strong Italian garrison initially overpowered and captured the 500-strong German garrison, reinforcing their position with an additional 3,500 men. However, between September 24 and 25, German forces, supported by the Luftwaffe, landed on the island. The Italians, running out of ammunition, surrendered on September 26. The Italian commander, Colonel Luigi Lusignani, was executed along with 28 of his officers, and 1,302 Italian prisoners died when the motor ship *Mario Roselli*, transporting them to the mainland, was sunk.

What were the specific demands of the armistice concerning the Italian fleet?

The clauses of the armistice specifically demanded the surrender of the Italian fleet. This was intended to reduce Allied naval forces in the Mediterranean by eliminating the battleships of the Italian Royal Navy, preventing them from being used by the Axis or becoming a threat to Allied operations.

What was the fate of the Italian battleship *Roma* during the fleet's movement?

The Italian battleship *Roma*, flagship of the main Italian battleship force under Admiral Carlo Bergamini, sailed from La Spezia on September 9. It was spotted and attacked at 14:00 by German aircraft using new Fritz X guided bombs. The *Roma* was sunk, and Admiral Bergamini perished along with 1,393 of his men, while its sister ship *Italia* was damaged.

Where did the majority of the operational Italian fleet ultimately sail to?

After the sinking of the *Roma*, the bulk of the Italian fleet, including the battleships *Italia* and *Vittorio Veneto* and five light cruisers, under Admiral Romeo Oliva, headed for Malta. A smaller force from Taranto, including the battleships *Duilio* and *Andrea Doria*, also transferred there, along with numerous other Italian ships like torpedo boats, corvettes, and submarines.

What happened to Italian warships in the Black Sea?

In the Black Sea, the Italian flotilla of five CB-class midget submarines was seized by Romanian naval authorities. Despite strong German protests, the Romanian naval commander, Rear Admiral Horia Macellariu, maintained his stance, and the five midget submarines were incorporated into the Royal Romanian Navy.

What was the fate of Italian ships under construction or repair?

Italian ships under construction or undergoing repair/maintenance, or those suffering from mechanical breakdown and unable to put to sea, were largely lost. Most were scuttled or sabotaged by Italian forces, while the rest were captured by the Germans. Notably, the incomplete aircraft carrier *Aquila* and several cruisers, torpedo boats, corvettes, and submarines under construction were captured, with many of the Ariete-class and Gabbiano-class ships later completed and put into service by the Kriegsmarine.

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Operation Overview

The German Disarmament Campaign

Operation Achse, initially codenamed Operation Alaric, was a critical German military operation during World War II. Its primary objective was the forcible disarmament of the Italian armed forces following Italy's armistice with the Allies on September 3, 1943. This swift action, executed between September 8 and 23, 1943, marked a dramatic shift in the Axis alliance, transforming Italy from a partner into an occupied territory.

Key Dates and Outcomes

The operation commenced immediately after the public announcement of the Italian armistice on September 8, 1943. German forces rapidly moved to seize control of Italian occupation zones across the Balkans and southern France, and to disarm Italian units within Italy itself. The outcome was a decisive Axis victory, leading to the German occupation of Northern and Central Italy and the subsequent establishment of the Italian Social Republic, a German puppet state.

Geographical Scope

Operation Achse was not confined to the Italian mainland. Its strategic reach extended across Italy, the Balkans (including Slovenia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, and Greece), and Southern France. This broad geographical scope underscored the German High Command's comprehensive strategy to neutralize the Italian military threat and secure vital Axis positions in the Mediterranean theater.

Strategic Planning

Hitler's Growing Suspicions

Even before Italy's official defection, Adolf Hitler harbored deep doubts about the political stability of the Fascist government and the reliability of his Italian ally. Reports from German diplomats and intelligence sources indicated declining Italian morale and increasing pro-British sentiment within the military and professional classes. This growing distrust prompted Hitler to initiate contingency planning for an Italian collapse or an overthrow of Benito Mussolini.

Initial Operational Directives

On May 21, 1943, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, head of the OKW (German High Command), issued comprehensive guidelines for responding to Italy's potential defection. These guidelines encompassed a series of distinct operations:

Operation Alarich: The invasion of the Italian mainland.
Operation Konstantin: Neutralization of Italian forces in the Balkans.
Operation Siegfried: Occupation of Italian-occupied areas in Southern France.
Operation Nürnberg: Guarding the France–Spain border.
Operation Kopenhagen: Controlling the passes on the France–Italy border.

These plans demonstrated Germany's foresight and meticulous preparation for a scenario where Italy would abandon the Axis alliance.

Evolution to Operation Achse

Following Mussolini's fall on July 25, 1943, Hitler was surprised but quickly reactivated and refined the plans. The codename "Alaric" was discreetly changed to "Achse" (Axis) to avoid offending the Italians, given Alaric's historical sacking of Rome. New operations were devised, including "Schwartz" (to capture the Italian government), "Achse" (to capture the Italian fleet), "Eiche" (to free Mussolini), and "Student" (to capture Rome). By July 28, "Konstantin" and "Alarich" were combined into a single, comprehensive plan for the occupation of Italy and the Balkans, officially named "Achse."

Pre-Armistice Deployment

Bolstering Defenses, Masking Intentions

German combat units began entering Italy in May 1943, ostensibly to reinforce Italian defenses against anticipated Allied attacks. This deployment occurred while Italy was still officially an Axis ally, despite protests from the new Italian government under Pietro Badoglio. Hitler, however, used this as an opportunity to position forces for the eventual takeover.

Strategic Infiltration

Key German divisions were strategically moved into Italy. The 1st Fallschirm-Panzer Division Hermann Göring arrived in Sicily in mid-May, followed by the 16th Panzer Division in early June near Bari. The XIV Panzer Corps headquarters also transferred from France to strengthen command. Later, the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division, 29th Panzergrenadier Division, and 26th Panzer Division were deployed to areas like Foggia, Salerno, and north of Rome. The Reichsführer-SS Brigade was moved to Corsica.

Italian Obstruction and German Resolve

Italian commands attempted to obstruct the influx of German divisions with various pretexts, but German Field Marshal Albert Kesselring intervened, ensuring the continued deployment. Incidents at the Brenner Pass, where Italian garrisons were strengthened, were resolved through German pressure. Divisions like the 215th, 715th, 305th, 76th, and 94th Infantry Divisions, along with the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler, systematically entered and positioned themselves across northern and central Italy, effectively encircling Italian forces.

The Fateful Armistice

Secret Negotiations

Following Mussolini's removal, the Badoglio government publicly affirmed loyalty to Germany while secretly pursuing negotiations with the Allies. These covert discussions, initiated by General Giuseppe Castellano, aimed to secure Italy's exit from the war and avoid a German occupation. However, the Allies demanded unconditional surrender, and Italian attempts to bargain for military collaboration and Allied landings to protect Rome proved largely unsuccessful.

The Public Announcement

The Armistice of Cassibile was signed on September 3, 1943, but a critical misunderstanding arose regarding its announcement. The Italian government sought to delay the public declaration until September 12 to prepare for the German reaction. However, on the evening of September 8, General Dwight Eisenhower announced the armistice via Radio Algiers. Badoglio's subsequent, hurried proclamation via EIAR confirmed Italy's defection, catching German representatives in Rome by surprise despite their earlier reassurances of Italian loyalty.

"Achse" Unleashed

Hitler, informed of the armistice via a BBC transmission, reacted with immediate and decisive action. At 19:50 on September 8, minutes after Badoglio's announcement, the coded word "Achse" was broadcast to all German commands. This signal initiated the German operation to attack and disarm Italian forces across all Mediterranean war theaters. The meticulously planned German response was swift and effective, exploiting the Italian leadership's indecision and the widespread confusion among Italian troops.

Italian Forces Collapse

The Fall of Rome

Despite concentrating approximately 55,000 men and 200 armored vehicles around Rome, Italian defenses proved disorganized and ineffective. The Motorized-Armored Army Corps and other divisions were tasked with defending the capital. However, German forces, primarily the 11th Airborne Corps (2nd Parachute Division and 3rd Panzergrenadier Division), launched a coordinated assault on September 8. Fierce but sporadic fighting ensued, particularly at Magliana and Porta San Paolo. The King and Badoglio fled the city, leaving Italian commanders without clear orders. Rome capitulated by the afternoon of September 10, with German forces suffering minimal casualties compared to the 984 Italian dead.

Southern Italy's Disintegration

In Southern Italy, Italian forces were generally weak and quickly overwhelmed. The Naples garrison was destroyed, and its commander executed. The XIX Italian Army Corps dissolved after its general abandoned his post. While some Italian units, like the 58th Infantry Division "Legnano" and the 152nd Infantry Division "Piceno" in Apulia, managed to maintain cohesion until Allied arrival, most were summarily disarmed. Field Marshal Kesselring skillfully managed to disengage his mobile units to counter Allied landings while simultaneously neutralizing Italian resistance, often sending captured soldiers home rather than interning them.

Sardinia and Corsica

In Sardinia, German commander General Frido von Senger und Etterlin successfully withdrew the 90th Panzergrenadier Division to Corsica by September 18, largely unimpeded by Italian forces under General Antonio Basso, due to prior agreements. However, in Corsica, the VII Italian Army Corps under General Giovanni Magli, reinforced by French units, actively resisted the Waffen-SS "Reichsführer-SS" brigade and the newly arrived 90th Panzergrenadier Division. Despite initial German gains, including the capture of Bastia, the Wehrmacht eventually evacuated the island by October 4 under sustained Italian and French attacks.

Dispersal Abroad

French Front Retreat

The 4th Italian Army, under General Mario Vercellino, was in the process of retreating from Provence to Italy when the armistice was announced. Panic and demoralization spread rapidly among the troops, leading to widespread desertions and the disintegration of units under pressure from converging German forces. While some Italian garrisons, like those at Mont Cenis pass, offered brief resistance, most soldiers dispersed. Significant groups, however, chose to oppose the German occupation, forming the nascent partisan movements in Piedmont.

Balkan Brutality

Italian forces in the Balkans, comprising over 30 divisions and 500,000 soldiers, were isolated and exhausted from years of anti-partisan operations. Faced with numerically superior and highly aggressive German and Croat collaborationist units, Italian commands often issued vague or contradictory orders. This led to rapid disintegration, mass disarming, and brutal reprisals. While many soldiers were captured and deported, some units and individuals joined Yugoslav or Greek partisan formations, fighting alongside them despite significant challenges and "incomprehensions."

Yugoslavia

The 2nd Italian Army in Slovenia, Croatia, and Dalmatia faced attacks from Croat and German divisions. Many commanders, like General Gastone Gambara, abandoned their troops.
The 15th Infantry Division "Bergamo" in Split notably resisted the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen until September 27, leading to the execution of three Italian generals and 46 officers after surrender.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the 18th Infantry Division "Messina" resisted for four days, and General Giuseppe Amico was executed for rallying his men against the Germans.
In Montenegro, the 19th Infantry Division "Venezia" and 1st Alpine Division "Taurinense" joined Tito's partisans, forming the "Garibaldi" Division.

Albania

The 9th Italian Army in Albania, under General Dalmazzo, suffered from indecision. German forces swiftly captured the Army Group East headquarters and General Rosi.
Divisions like "Brennero," "Puglie," "Parma," and "Arezzo" were disarmed, though many "Brennero" men escaped by sea and "Arezzo" men joined partisans.
The 41st Infantry Division "Firenze" and 151st Infantry Division "Perugia" attempted resistance, with the "Perugia" Division's commander, General Ernesto Chiminello, and 130 officers executed after surrender.
Over 15,000 dispersed Italian soldiers were sheltered by the population, but many succumbed to cold and starvation.

Greece

General Carlo Vecchiarelli of the 11th Italian Army ordered his troops to surrender weapons, leading to the easy disarmament of most divisions.
The 24th Infantry Division "Pinerolo" in Thessaly rejected these orders, fighting in Larissa before retreating to the Pindus massif and joining ELAS partisans. Many were later used as forced labor.

Ionian & Dodecanese Islands

These islands, deemed strategically vital by Germany, became sites of fierce resistance and brutal massacres. Despite Allied insistence, only weak contingents and scarce air support were provided to Italian garrisons, leading to German victories. The most tragic events included:

Cephalonia: The 33rd Infantry Division "Acqui" (11,500 men) under General Antonio Gandin initially resisted a German ultimatum. After fierce fighting, the Germans executed General Gandin, approximately 400 officers, and 4,000-5,000 men. Another 1,350 perished in sunken transport ships.
Rhodes: The 50th Infantry Division "Regina" (34,000 men) surrendered to numerically inferior German forces after threats of heavy bombing. Admiral Inigo Campioni, the Italian commander, was later executed by Fascist authorities. Over 6,500 Italian soldiers died in sunken transport ships.
Kos: Fell on October 4, with 96 Italian officers, including the garrison commander, executed.
Leros: Defended by 7,600 Italians and 4,500 British, it resisted for weeks under continuous bombing before surrendering on November 16. Rear Admiral Luigi Mascherpa was later executed by RSI authorities.

The Italian Navy's Fate

Orders and Indecision

The armistice explicitly demanded the surrender of the Italian fleet. Admiral Raffaele de Courten, Chief of Staff, remained indecisive until the evening of September 8, failing to inform Admiral Carlo Bergamini, commander of the main battleship force in La Spezia, until the last moment. De Courten then fled to Brindisi with the King and Badoglio, leaving his deputy in Rome to manage the chaotic situation.

The Sinking of the Roma

Admiral Bergamini, after overcoming reluctant officers, sailed from La Spezia at 03:00 on September 9. In daylight, the fleet was attacked by German aircraft employing new Fritz X guided bombs. Bergamini's flagship, the battleship Roma, was sunk, taking 1,393 men, including the Admiral, with her. Her sister ship, Italia, was damaged. This event underscored the immediate and lethal German response to Italy's defection.

Escape and Capture

Most of the operational Italian fleet, now under Admiral Romeo Oliva, successfully reached Allied-controlled Malta. A smaller force from Taranto also transferred there. However, some ships were sunk by German forces en route, including destroyers and torpedo boats. In the Black Sea, the Italian flotilla of five CB-class midget submarines was seized by Romanian naval authorities despite German protests. Many ships undergoing repair or maintenance were scuttled, sabotaged, or captured by the Germans, including the incomplete aircraft carrier Aquila and numerous smaller vessels, many of which were later completed and integrated into the Kriegsmarine.

Royal Air Force Disarray

Surprise and Ineptitude

The Royal Italian Air Force (Regia Aeronautica) was caught completely off guard by the armistice. Its Chief of Staff, General Renato Sandalli, failed to inform his subordinates until September 5 and then fled to Brindisi on September 8 without issuing crucial executive orders. This leadership vacuum and lack of clear directives left Italian air bases in disarray, unable to respond effectively to the German invasion.

Losses and Defections

German forces swiftly captured the main air bases in northern Italy, where the majority of operational aircraft were stationed. On September 11, General Santoro, Sandalli's successor, finally ordered units to fly to Allied-controlled bases. However, out of approximately 800 operational aircraft, only 246 managed to reach Allied territory. Two-thirds of the planes fell into German hands, and 43 were shot down by Luftwaffe aircraft while attempting to fly south. Some fighter units chose to remain with the Axis, forming the core of the new National Republican Air Force.

Consequences

German Strategic Success

Operation Achse represented a significant strategic victory for the Wehrmacht. Despite considerable operational difficulties, Germany secured vital strategic positions in the Mediterranean theater. The operation yielded vast quantities of captured Italian weapons, equipment, and resources, which were crucial in augmenting Germany's depleting war supplies. This success allowed Germany to maintain a defensive front in Southern Europe, protecting industrial regions and establishing a collaborationist Italian Fascist government.

Italian Human Cost

The human cost for Italy was immense. Over 20,000 Italian soldiers were killed in battle, and nearly 800,000 were captured. A tragic 13,000 more drowned when transport ships carrying them from the Aegean islands to mainland Greece were sunk by Allied attacks. The captured soldiers were denied prisoner-of-war status, instead classified as "Italian Military Internees," and subjected to forced labor in Germany's war industry, where an estimated 37,000 to 50,000 perished.

Tragic Fate: Italian generals captured during Operation Achse, such as Italo Gariboldi and Ezio Rosi, were held in camps like Oflag 64/Z in Poland. Many were mistreated for refusing allegiance to the Italian Social Republic, with several dying in captivity or executed, including Admirals Inigo Campioni and Luigi Mascherpa.

Causes of Collapse

The sudden and comprehensive collapse of the Italian state and its military apparatus stemmed primarily from the profound failures of its political and military leadership. Key factors included: unrealistic initiatives, a misunderstanding of Allied objectives, the decision to surrender to the Allies without a clear plan to counter German aggression, and a critical lack of clear orders to subordinate commands. The emphasis on the personal safety and institutional continuity of the leadership, often at the expense of the armed forces' ability to resist, led to widespread disintegration of units, leaving soldiers vulnerable to German attacks and reprisals, despite isolated acts of valor.

Statistical Overview

Disarmed Italian Forces

German accounts indicate that a staggering 1,006,370 Italian personnel were disarmed during Operation Achse. This massive disarmament effort had profound implications for the Italian military's capacity and the subsequent course of the war.

Region	Number of Soldiers Disarmed
Northern Italy	415,682
Southern Italy	102,340
France	8,722
Yugoslavia	164,986
Mainland Greece & Aegean Islands	265,000

Captured Equipment

The German forces confiscated an immense quantity of military hardware from the disarmed Italian units, significantly bolstering their own resources and denying them to the Allies or Italian resistance.

Equipment Type	Quantity Captured
Rifles	1,285,871
Machine Guns	39,007
MAB 38 Submachine Guns	13,906
Mortars	8,736
Field Guns	2,754
Other Artillery Pieces	5,568
Vehicles	16,631
Armored Vehicles	977

Fate of Italian Soldiers

The aftermath of Operation Achse saw a diverse and often tragic fate for the Italian soldiers involved:

Killed in Action: Between 20,000 and 30,000 Italian soldiers were killed during the fighting in September 1943.
Drowned: An additional 13,000 perished in the sinking of POW ships in the Aegean Sea.
Joined Germans: Approximately 197,000 Italian soldiers continued to fight alongside the Germans. Of these, 94,000 were fascists who chose this immediately, while 103,000 opted to support the Italian Social Republic during their detention to escape harsh labor camp conditions.
German Labor Camps: Between 600,000 and 650,000 remained in German labor camps as "Italian Military Internees," where 37,000 to 50,000 ultimately died.

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References

Maurizio Brescia, Seaforth Publishing, 2012, Mussolini's Navy: A Reference Guide to the Regia Marina 1930â1945, p. 174

Report of Admiral Emilio Brenta on his captivity, quoted in Maria Trionfi, Il diario dellâattesa, p. 437

Luca Frigerio, Noi nei lager: testimonianze di militari italiani internati nei campi nazisti (1943â1945), pp. 246â247, 288

Report of Admiral Emilio Brenta on his captivity, quoted in Maria Trionfi, Il diario dellâattesa, p. 437

Luca Frigerio, Noi nei lager: testimonianze di militari italiani internati nei campi nazisti (1943â1945), pp. 246â247, 288

A full list of references for this article are available at the Operation Achse Wikipedia page

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Operation Achse: The Axis Betrayal

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Operation Overview ℹ️

⚔️ The German Disarmament Campaign

🗓️ Key Dates and Outcomes

🌍 Geographical Scope

Strategic Planning 🧠

🤔 Hitler's Growing Suspicions

📜 Initial Operational Directives

🔄 Evolution to Operation Achse

Pre-Armistice Deployment 🚚

🛡️ Bolstering Defenses, Masking Intentions

📍 Strategic Infiltration

🚧 Italian Obstruction and German Resolve

The Fateful Armistice 🤝

🤫 Secret Negotiations

📢 The Public Announcement

🚨 "Achse" Unleashed

Italian Forces Collapse 📉

🏛️ The Fall of Rome

⬇️ Southern Italy's Disintegration

🏝️ Sardinia and Corsica

Dispersal Abroad 🗺️

🇫🇷 French Front Retreat

🇧🇦 Balkan Brutality

Yugoslavia

Albania

Greece

🏝️ Ionian & Dodecanese Islands

The Italian Navy's Fate ⚓

🚢 Orders and Indecision

💣 The Sinking of the Roma

🌊 Escape and Capture

Royal Air Force Disarray ✈️

🌪️ Surprise and Ineptitude

📉 Losses and Defections

Consequences 🔚

🏆 German Strategic Success

💔 Italian Human Cost

🤔 Causes of Collapse

Statistical Overview 📊

👥 Disarmed Italian Forces

📦 Captured Equipment

⛓️ Fate of Italian Soldiers

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Operation Overview

The German Disarmament Campaign

Key Dates and Outcomes

Geographical Scope

Strategic Planning

Hitler's Growing Suspicions

Initial Operational Directives

Evolution to Operation Achse

Pre-Armistice Deployment

Bolstering Defenses, Masking Intentions

Strategic Infiltration

Italian Obstruction and German Resolve

The Fateful Armistice

Secret Negotiations

The Public Announcement

"Achse" Unleashed

Italian Forces Collapse

The Fall of Rome

Southern Italy's Disintegration

Sardinia and Corsica

Dispersal Abroad

French Front Retreat

Balkan Brutality

Ionian & Dodecanese Islands

The Italian Navy's Fate

Orders and Indecision

The Sinking of the Roma

Escape and Capture

Royal Air Force Disarray

Surprise and Ineptitude

Losses and Defections

Consequences

German Strategic Success

Italian Human Cost

Causes of Collapse

Statistical Overview

Disarmed Italian Forces

Captured Equipment

Fate of Italian Soldiers

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice