Whispers from the Past
A scholarly exploration into the ancient Chinese practice of divination and the dawn of written language through oracle bones.
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Introduction to Oracle Bones
Ancient Divination Tools
Oracle bones are fragments of ox scapulae and turtle plastrons utilized in pyromancy, a form of divination, during China's Late Shang period (circa 1250–1050 BCE). This practice involved posing questions to deities concerning weather, agriculture, royal fortunes, and military matters.
Earliest Chinese Writing
These bones bear the earliest substantial corpus of ancient Chinese writing, employing an early form of Chinese characters. The inscriptions provide invaluable insights into the Shang dynasty and the evolution of the Chinese script, with many characters still recognizable today.
Global Significance
Collections of oracle bones are housed in institutions worldwide, with over 130,000 inscriptions documented across China and fourteen other countries. Their study offers a unique window into the socio-political and religious landscape of Bronze Age China.
Discovery and Recognition
Accidental Unearthing
Oracle bones were unearthed sporadically by local farmers as early as the Sui and Tang dynasties. However, their true nature remained unrecognized; they were often re-interred or, during the 19th century, ground into powder for traditional Chinese medicine, referred to as "dragon bones."
Wang Yirong's Insight
In 1899, scholar Wang Yirong is credited as the first to identify the markings on these bones as ancient Chinese writing, recognizing their similarity to Zhou dynasty bronze inscriptions. This pivotal discovery confirmed the existence of the Shang dynasty, previously doubted by some scholars.
Academic Excavation
Official archaeological excavations, led by Li Ji starting in 1928 at the Xiaotun village near Anyang, definitively traced the source of the oracle bones. These systematic digs uncovered vast quantities of inscribed pieces, solidifying Anyang's identification as the last Shang capital, known as Yinxu (Ruins of Yin).
The Oracle Bone Script
Linguistic Foundation
The inscriptions represent an early form of Chinese characters, with approximately 5,000 distinct graphs identified. While the exact number is debated, over 1,200 are understood with certainty, forming a significant portion of modern Chinese vocabulary.
Scholarly Study
The study of oracle bones and their script, known as oraculology, has been crucial for reconstructing Shang dynasty history, including royal genealogies. The decipherment and publication of these inscriptions have been monumental academic undertakings.
Linguistic Evolution
The script's structure and vocabulary offer profound insights into the linguistic development of Chinese. Scholars continue to analyze these inscriptions to understand grammatical structures, semantic shifts, and the broader cultural context of the Shang era.
Chronological Framework
Periodization of Diviners
Scholars, notably Dong Zuobin, have categorized the inscriptions into five periods based on the diviners named and stylistic analysis of the script. This framework helps date the bones to specific reigns within the Late Shang dynasty.
Astronomical Alignments
The dating of the earliest bones relies partly on recorded lunar eclipses. By correlating these astronomical events with the 60-day cycle used in the inscriptions, scholars estimate the reigns of kings like Wu Ding, though precise dating remains a subject of academic discussion.
Radiocarbon Analysis
Modern scientific methods, such as radiocarbon dating of selected oracle bones, provide empirical data to corroborate historical and paleographic analyses. These studies generally support the established chronological frameworks for the Late Shang period.
The Divination Ritual
Pyromancy Process
Diviners prepared the bones or shells by cleaning and smoothing them. Pits were chiseled into the surface. Intense heat was applied with a metal rod, causing the material to crack. The resulting patterns were interpreted to divine answers to the posed questions.
The Charge and Prognostication
The "charge" was the specific question posed, often concerning weather, harvests, or royal affairs. The diviner, typically a Shang king or a high-ranking official, would record the date, the diviner's name, and the charge. Sometimes, a prognostication (interpretation) was added.
Ritualistic Elements
Anointing with blood was a ritualistic element in the process. The cracks themselves, often in a 'T' shape, were central to the interpretation. After use, the bones were often buried in specific pits, providing archaeological context.
Materials and Preparation
Tortoise Plastrons
Primarily, turtle plastrons were used, likely female due to their flatter curvature. These were often presented as tribute, offering clues about diplomatic relations. Notations on the shells sometimes recorded their provenance and the date of tribute.
Bovine Scapulae
Ox scapulae were also extensively used, possibly from livestock involved in ritual sacrifices or obtained through tribute. Their large, flat surfaces made them suitable for extensive inscriptions.
Preparation Techniques
The bones and shells were meticulously cleaned, sawed, scraped, smoothed, and polished. Pits were drilled or chiseled partway through, with the shape and depth evolving over time, serving as a dating indicator. Evidence suggests the use of bronze saws.
Dissemination of Knowledge
Early Publications
As inscriptions were discovered, they were published in fascicles. Liu E's 1903 book, featuring rubbings of inscriptions, was the first significant publication. Later efforts, like the Jiaguwen Heji, compiled tens of thousands of fragments.
Global Collections
Uncontrolled digs fueled the antiques trade, leading to oracle bones entering collections in Europe, North America, and Japan. Western scholars like Frank H. Chalfant and James Mellon Menzies played crucial roles in their study and preservation.
Digital Archives
Modern initiatives provide digital access to high-resolution images of oracle bones, facilitating global scholarly research. These digital archives preserve these invaluable artifacts for future generations.
Key Archaeological Sites
Xiaotun, Anyang
The primary discovery site, Xiaotun village, is recognized as the location of the last Shang capital, Yinxu. Excavations here yielded the majority of the inscribed oracle bones, providing definitive proof of the Shang dynasty's existence.
Zhengzhou and Daxinzhuang
Inscriptions have also been found at sites like Zhengzhou and Daxinzhuang in Shandong. While stylistically similar to Anyang finds, these often exhibit unique characteristics, suggesting regional variations or earlier origins.
Zhouyuan Finds
Nearly 300 inscribed bones were discovered at Zhougongmiao in Shaanxi, dating to the late Shang and early Western Zhou periods. These differ in preparation and script from Anyang finds, offering insights into the transition between dynasties.
Legacy Beyond the Shang
Decline of Inscribed Bones
Following the Shang dynasty, the practice of inscribing oracle bones gradually declined. Other divination methods, such as milfoil divination associated with the I Ching, became more prevalent, leading to fewer inscribed oracle bones being produced.
Continued Practice
Despite the decline in inscribed bones, pyromancy and plastromancy continued in various forms through subsequent dynasties, including the Eastern Zhou, Tang, and Qing periods, and even into modern times in some regions.
Enduring Influence
The oracle bone script laid the foundation for modern Chinese characters. The practice of divination and the artifacts themselves remain subjects of intense scholarly interest, illuminating ancient Chinese culture, religion, and governance.
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References
References
- Chou 1976, p. 12 cites two such scapulae, citing his own "åæ®·å¸çæ¬ç´" ShÄngâYÄ«n dìwáng bÄnjì, pp. 18â21.
- Xu 2002, pp. 4â5 cites The Compendium of Materia Medica and includes a photo of the relevant page and entry.
- Xu 2002, p. 6 cites eight waves of illegal digs over three decades, with tens of thousands of pieces taken.
- According to Keightley 1978a, p. 5, citing Yang Junshi 1963, the term plastromancy (from plastron + Greek μανÏεία, "divination") was coined by Li Ji.
- Keightley 1978a, p. 9 â the female shells are smoother, flatter and of more uniform thickness, facilitating pyromantic use.
- There appears to be some confusion in published reports between inscribed bones in general, and bones that have actually been heated and cracked for use in divination.
- Xu 2002, p. 35 does show an inscribed deer skull, thought to have been killed by a Shang king during a hunt.
- Some cattle scapulae were also tribute.[58]
- Keightley 1978a, p. 12 mentions reports of XiÇotún villagers finding hundreds of shells of all sizes, implying live tending or breeding of the turtles onsite.
- Chou 1976, p. 12 notes that evidence of sawing is present on some oracle bones, and that the saws were likely made of bronze, although none have ever been found.
- There is scholarly debate about whether the topic was posed as a question or not; Keightley prefers the term "charge", since grammatical questions were often not involved.
- For a fuller overview of the topics of divination and what can be gleaned from them about the Shang and their environment, see Keightley 2000.
- Qiu 2000, p. 60 mentions that some were written with a brush and either ink or cinnabar, but not carved.
- Wang Haiping (2006). "Menzies and Yin-Shang Culture Scholarship â An Unbreakable Bond". Anyang Ribao [Anyang Daily], August 12, 2006, p.1
- Xu 2002, p. 28, citing the Rites of Zhou.
- David N. Keightley "The Making of the Ancestors: Late Shang Religion and its Legacy" in Keightley, David N. These Bones Shall Rise Again: Selected Writings on Early China.. Albany, NY: State Univ of New York Pr, 2014. p.161
- Keightley 1978a, p. 8, note 25, citing KKHP 1973.1, pp. 70, 79, 88, 91, plates 3.1, 4.2, 13.8.
- Keightley 1978a, p. 8, note 25 cites ZhèngzhoÅ« ÃrlÄgÄng, p.38.
- Keightley 1978a, p. 9, n.30, citing Hu Xu 1782â1787, ch. 4, p.3b on use in Jiangsu
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Important Notice
This content has been generated by an AI model, drawing upon scholarly sources to provide an educational overview of oracle bones. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the provided source material, it is intended for informational purposes only.
This is not a substitute for primary source analysis or expert consultation. Users are encouraged to consult original academic works and archaeological findings for comprehensive and definitive understanding. The AI and its creators are not responsible for any interpretations or actions taken based on this information.